21st Century Research Articles

Deconstructing Students’ Language Identities On X: A Nigerian and Malaysian Case Study For Education

This study investigated students’ language deconstruction and identities on X social media technology. The Gen Z’s and Big Data are currently in vogue, which affords this research to enquire using a quantitative methodology. Besides, the online data analytics consisting of the number of likes, repost and comments were gathered from the X social media. Nowadays, the social media acts as an online reservoir for internet data that are readily available for use. Learning analytics are records of students’ activities based on their engagement on social media. However, the respondents in this study were students randomly selected from a two-world perspective on X, consisting of Malaysian and Nigerian students. A detailed data analysis was conducted using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) and the results showed a recent decline of students’ engagement in educational discourse using indigenous languages on X. The recent decline was informed by this study’s data, which implies an imminent action is required to ensure the indigenous languages are protected from extinction. This study findings are significant to lecturers, policymakers, researchers and Government in ensuring that more language diversity issues are considered in this 21st century. This research likewise addressed the English language (L2) significance in educational discourse with a recommendation for the inclusion of more indigenous language option on X for diversity and equality purpose.

NAKHE Leadership Mentor Program: An Opportunity for Inter-Institutional Exchange in Kinesiology

ABSTRACT College leadership in the 21st century is incredibly difficult, and leadership in Kinesiology can be rather complex in some departments. Mentoring is an important part of success in any leadership role, and individuals who receive mentoring typically outperform those who do not receive it. The National Association of Kinesiology in Higher Education (NAKHE) has an innovative and impactful initiative in place that focuses on mentoring for success in academic leadership: the Leadership Mentor Program. The Leadership Mentor Program is designed to build inter-institutional mentoring and networking between university Kinesiology departments and to increase aspiring administrator’s understanding of the job requirements of a Kinesiology administrator. Given the challenging environment in higher education today and the need to continue to examine exemplary models of leadership mentoring, the purpose of this paper is to: (a) outline contemporary challenges in academic leadership in general and Kinesiology specifically; (b) discuss some of the types and benefits of mentoring, with a focus on inter-institutional mentoring, (c) describe our experiences with the NAKHE Leadership Mentor Program from the perspective of the mentor and mentee; and (d) recommend possible future experiences for this program so as to guide individuals who are interested in pursuing this opportunity.

Kárpátalja egyházi fenntartású iskoláinak virtuális nyelvi tájképe

We live in an age where everywhere we look, thousands of pieces of information are streaming towards us. This fact in itself highlights the importance of the linguistic landscape in our everyday lives, as everything that surrounds us, everything we perceive influences our thinking and therefore our use of language. In the 21st century, we need to pay particular attention to the virtual world, as a large percentage of the younger and even older generations receive a significant proportion of their stimuli through some types of electronic communication tools or social platforms. Schools have a particularly important role in language development and formation, as young people, the future generation, are most shaped within their walls. In the present study, we analysed a sample of posts published in the last few years on the social platforms (official website and Facebook) of the ecclesiastical schools of Transcarpathia. We relied on statistical and comparative analysis of the textual content of these entries. In addition, we examined the meta-linguistic information of the entries. The overall visual appearance of the website was also taken into consideration, i.e., the types of images published were also investigated. In the research, it was assumed that all the official webpages of the schools under investigation contain entries in both Ukrainian and Hungarian. We also assessed whether a higher percentage of entries in Hungarian appeared on the schools’ online interfaces. Results showed that the number of interactions by people who followed the sites was higher for Hungarian language posts, advertisements and articles. We assumed that religious posts and symbols regularly appeared on the websites and Facebook pages, and that a higher percentage of these posts and symbols appeared in Hungarian. It was also hypothesized that the volume of texts in Ukrainian was smaller than the amount of texts in Hungarian. The research has confirmed that both Ukrainian and Hungarian entries are found on the websites, with a higher share of entries in Hungarian. It also confirmed our hypothesis that followers of the websites tend to respond more frequently to posts in Hungarian, due to the fact that the majority of followers use Hungarian as their mother tongue. Last but not least, the research revealed that religious posts and symbols regularly appear on the official websites and Facebook pages of the lyceums, and the language of these posts is mostly Hungarian.

PSIT communication, collaboration, and inclusion: needs, challenges, and current proposals

The 21st century has involved several changes at the social, economic, educational, health, etc. levels, brought about by events of different types, such as, for example, the constant conflicts in different parts of the world (including the Afghan conflict or the war in Ukraine), natural disasters caused by climate change, or health crises such as COVID-19 (Valero-Garcés and Alcalde Peñalver, 2024). These situations have often resulted in humanitarian crises that have involved large-scale population movements (Valero-Garcés and Alcalde Peñalver, 2024). This increase in population movements has been a challenge in itself as it has led to the configuration of new multicultural societies across the globe (Valero-Garcés and Lázaro Gutiérrez, 2016). This new reality implies not only coexistence but also access to basic public rights and services for the host population who does not speak the main language as well as the fulfilment of human rights (Vitalaru, forthcoming); in these different contexts, communication is essential. The very characteristics of PSIT, with its variety of contexts and situations, imply a series of challenges for different groups (users, service providers, and translators and interpreters) related to the provision and availability of services; provision and availability depend on the field in question, the availability of professionals for all the language combinations involved, the existence of training programmes, the quality of the training available, access to such training, etc. These challenges have been identified through the practice of the profession as well as through more specific research and are all related in some way to professionalisation. This article gathers some of the needs and challenges raised in different studies focused on Spain, as well as a summary of the topics covered in the articles included in this thematic issue of the journal. The contributions in this issue attempt to offer, from different perspectives (professional practice, training, and research), results, reflections, and actions considering the variety of PSIT situations and tasks. As this is a special thematic issue, the issue includes only articles and interviews.

Back to the past – Chances of Restoring Monarchy in Romania in the 21st Century

W Europie jest dwanaście monarchii. Wyliczenie to dotyczy jednak wyłącznie państw posiadających królewską głowę państwa i nie dotyczy republik, które wykazują rosnącą aprobatę dla przywrócenia monarchii, jak na przykład Rumunia. Aby wyciągnąć ostateczne wnioski, przeprowadziłem dziewięć wywiadów z rumuńskimi badaczami i ekspertami tematyki monarchii w Rumunii. Artykuł ten jest efektem projektu „Wtedy i teraz – rumuńska tradycja monarchiczna i tendencje promonarchistyczne w społeczeństwie rumuńskim” zrealizowanego podczas krótkotrwałej wizyty na Uniwersytecie w Bukareszcie w Rumunii (od 1 do 30 listopada 2021 r.) zorganizowanego i sfinansowanego ze środków Programu Wymiany Studentów i Naukowców w ramach współpracy dwustronnej (NAWA). Ostateczne wyniki pokazują, że pomimo istnienia pewnych przeszkód społeczno-prawnych, monarchię ponownie uznawano za realny system polityczny w Rumunii w miejsce republiki.

ЛЮДСЬКИЙ КАПІТАЛ В КОНЦЕПЦІЇ ВІДКРИТОЇ НАУКИ

Introduction. Any economic system's development is only possible with capital participation. Over several centuries, a stable concept has emerged that considers human capital as an essential source of investment for innovation, scientific and technological progress, and the stable development of the state. At the same time, the practical realization of this concept is associated with such categories as education, science, healthcare, competencies, skills, professional abilities of employees, intellectual output, etc. The purpose of the article: The aim is to comprehensively investigate the innovative potential of human capital from the perspective of a driving force for progress in the knowledge age. Methods: Modern science is based on openness and accessibility as tools of scientific search and research. Human capital is an essential element of this search, expressed in intellectual abilities, self-development, and theoretical and practical generalizations. The basis for more profound research and generalizations is the study of internal and external influences on the formation of human capital and the definition of its role in the scientific sense. Results: Analyzing human capital through the prism of its structural formation, it is worth noting that its meaning has changed in different periods. In the twentieth century, when the economy was formed in the context of industrial development, human capital was focused on technological excellence and ingenuity. In the 21st century, economic development is dominated by the intellectual and scientific component, which is the basis for the functioning of the national system. Therefore, human capital in this period is gaining new meaning as a knowledge economy. In forming the country's national economy, the intangible form of capital is becoming increasingly important, where human resource is the basis of socio-economic development. Conclusions. As a result of the theoretical analysis of existing approaches and new proposals, the innovative economic development model is developing dynamically. Human (intellectual) capital is prioritized in this model, stimulating informatization and introducing modern scientific and technological innovations. Human capital is a complex phenomenon that adapts to modern innovative and technological changes and acts as an organizational motivator for achieving a high level of industrialization and a civilized environment.

Beyond the margin of error: a systematic and replicable audit of the TikTok research API

ABSTRACT The availability of an accurate API is an essential tool for research examining the content and dissemination of messages on large media platforms in the twenty-first century. TikTok launched their research API as part of a commitment to data transparency and a goal of protecting youth and vulnerable populations from harmful content. A systematic audit of TikTok’s API for researchers was performed comparing the API versus information displayed on the TikTok website (i.e., front-end), specifically examining metadata engagement (views, likes, shares, and comments) and assessing the availability of videos. Two research teams with unique access accounts separately audited the API in two distinct contexts: tobacco and elections. Results showed significant discrepancies between the front-end and API metadata for data collected before July 2024. Discrepancies were most severe for view counts, where the API regularly returned values multiple orders of magnitude lower than those displayed on the front-end. Significant discrepancies were found for all four engagement metrics in both datasets. Furthermore, publicly available videos were found in the front-end that were not returned by the API, and errors were found in how the API filters results by account usernames. The implications of these issues for researchers and TikTok’s efforts to support the research community are discussed.

Echoes of Ubuntu Capacity in The Realization of Child Rights Through Ujamaa Intersections – A Case of a Parasocial Work Model in Tanzania

Child rights abuse has become a serious global concern in the 21st century as it has been reflected in the global agenda of SDGs. Tanzania like other developing countries experienced significant child rights abuse in the 1990s due to the influx of the number of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) which was highly influenced by the HIV and AIDS pandemic, poverty, urbanization, etc. OVC was exposed to the high risk of being deprived of their rights following the failure of the formal systems and the shortage of childcare workforce that necessitated the government to involve the key child welfare stakeholders to revitalize and capacitate among the Ujamaa Intersections Models (UIM) under Ubuntu philosophy. Ultimate the country successfully designed an Indigenous cadre of para-social work (PSW) that advocated for and addressed the multiple rights of vulnerable children from 2007. Initiation and operation of PSW are embedded in the Ujamaa sections from side to side with social work and Ubuntu competence, this combination capacitated existing Ujamaa Intersections in the community such as family, extended families, neighborhood, local leadership, ecology, spirituality, and wider attributes in realizing child rights. The relevance of Ubuntu values and social work enabled para-social workers to identify the special needs of vulnerable children, increase community child protection awareness, create alarm systems for abused children, and sometimes link them to temporary self-shelters or social welfare services, etc. Despite the challenges, PSW succeeded in advocating for children's rights and improved the quality of life of children and their families. PSW has rendered evidence based on how the Indigenous models can offer relevant and sustainable solutions in addressing the rights of vulnerable populations in the community. Over time, several African countries adopted the PSW model and the model calls for child rights stakeholders and global decision-makers to revisit and relearn the capacity of the PSW model in the realization of SDG including protecting children from abuse, exploitation, trafficking, and violence. Also, it has relevant sustainable opportunities that ensure children attain inclusive and equitable quality social welfare services.

Mitigation-driven global heat imbalance in the late 21st century

While the changes in ocean heat uptake in a warming climate have been well explored, the changes in response to climate mitigation efforts remain unclear. Using coupled climate model simulations, here we find that in response to a hypothesized reduction of greenhouse gases in the late 21st century, ocean heat uptake would significantly decline in all ocean basins except the North Atlantic, where a persistently weakened Atlantic meridional overturning circulation results in sustained heat uptake. These prolonged circulation anomalies further lead to interbasin heat exchanges, characterized by a sustained heat export from the Atlantic to the Southern Ocean and a portion of heat transfer from the Southern Ocean to the Indo-Pacific. Due to ocean heat uptake decline and interbasin heat export, the Southern Ocean experiences the strongest decline in ocean heat storage therefore emerging as the primary heat exchanger, while heat changes in the Indo-Pacific basin are relatively limited.

Comparative assessment of empirical random forest family's model in simulating future streamflow in different basin of Sarawak, Malaysia

In Sarawak, a region highly vulnerable to climate change, the translation of climate-induced changes in rainfall to river flow is non-linear, presenting a challenge for water resource managers. This research investigates the impact of climate change on hydrological processes in Sarawak, Malaysia, with a specific focus on assessing future spatiotemporal variations in streamflow. The families of Random Forest (RF) empirical models based on data mining techniques were compared and utilized to develop a continuous hydrologic model. Then, by incorporating rainfall and evapotranspiration future projection prepared based on RF past performance statistical downscaling, the top performing RF empirical hydrological model was used for future streamflow projection. The results showed that despite an expected increase in rainfall, the RFR (Random Forest by Randomization) empirical hydrological model demonstrated a potential decrease in river runoff due to heightened evapotranspiration demands associated with rising temperatures. The examination of climate-induced alterations in both rainfall and evapotranspiration patterns revealed a consistent decrease in river discharges during the early to middle period across Sarawak, followed by a shift towards an increasing trend by the end of the 21st century. The central region along the Rajang basin exhibited a prevailing decrease in river discharge, with contrasting patterns in the last part of the century. The northern region displayed diverse trends, with some basins experiencing decreases in river runoff despite augmented rainfall, emphasizing the heterogeneity in response. By employing empirical models, and projecting future scenarios, the study contributes to a better understanding of climate change impacts on hydrology in the region, essential for effective water resource management and environmental conservation.

Impacts of Five Different Drying Methods on Volatile Organic Compounds in Mulberry Fruits.

The mulberry fruit is edible and medicinal, and it is commonly referred to as the "best health product of the 21st century". The purpose of this study was to find out whether different drying methods affect the quality of mulberry fruits and the main nature of the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) they contain. This study used vacuum freeze-drying (VFD), vacuum drying (VD), sun drying (SD), hot-air drying (HAD), and microwave drying (MD) to treat fresh mulberry fruits. Gas-phase ion mobility spectrometry (GC-IMS) was used to detect and analyze the VOCs in mulberry fruit samples treated with the different drying methods. There were 47 VOCs detected, with aldehydes and alcohols dominating. The obtained data were subjected to principal component analysis (PCA), cluster analysis (CA), nearest neighbor fingerprint analysis, and partial least-squares regression analysis (PLS-DA). The conclusion was drawn that fresh mulberry fruits contain abundant VOCs, and mulberry fruits after VD contain many aldehydes; thus, VD promoted the synthesis of phellandrene and other compounds widely used in the preparation of cosmetics such as perfume and soap. HAD promoted the synthesis of esters commonly used in the preparation of fruit flavor and wine essence. The higher (E)-2-heptenal content with SD was conducive to the Maillard reaction. MD promoted the synthesis of heptanal and valeraldehyde with aroma characteristics such as fatty, green, fruity, grassy, and floral. According to the VIP results, VOCs (E)-2-heptenal, pentanal D, cyclohexanone, and 2-hexanone D influenced the VOCs in most of the mulberry fruit samples. The findings of this study provide an important reference for drying mulberry fruits, which, in turn, will help to ensure the safety and effectiveness of processed mulberry fruit products.

Warming Asian Drylands Inducing the Delayed Retreat of East Asian Summer Monsoon and Intensifying Autumn Precipitation in Northern China

AbstractIn the early 21st century, there was an increase in precipitation during the retreat period of the East Asian summer monsoon (EASM). This study aims to explore the precipitation changes and their possible causes in the context of climate change. The findings indicate that the increased precipitation primarily occurred in the Yellow—Huai River valley during the early autumn. This corresponds to a delayed retreat of the EASM with a northward shift of 0.9°N after 2002. Notably, this anomalous changes in the EASM are associated with the significant warming in two Asian dryland regions. The warming of the central Asian dryland strengthens the midlatitude high‐pressure belt and the anomaly anticyclone over northeast Asia, which restrains the development of wave troughs and westerly cold air activity. Similarly, the warming China‐Mongolia dryland enhances the anomaly anticyclone over northeast Asia through the dry soil moisture feedback and reduced latitudinal temperature gradient. These two Asian drylands thereby hold the northward shift of the westerly jet stream and the northwest extension of the Japan Sea high and the western Pacific subtropical high. These changes result in maintaining the northward EASM circulation and driving the northwest water vapor flux from the northwest Pacific, leading to moisture convergence in northern China. The China‐Mongolia dryland warming also increases the land‐sea thermal contrast, which induces a dipole pattern over East Asia and drives the northward water vapor flux from the South Sea. As a result, the rapidly warming drylands restrict westerly activity and EASM retreat, ultimately leading to increased precipitation.

Standardization of studies on physical development of children in the Russian Federation

BACKGROUND:The importance of studying the growth and development processes of the child population is due to the significance of the pre-clinical approach aimed at primary disease prevention. AIM:To provide the constituent entities of the Russian Federation with standards for the physical development of children and adolescents aged 7–17years. MATERIAL AND METHODS:An analytical study was conducted, big data from the database “Physical Development of Children, Adolescents, and Youth of the Russian Federation in 2000–2021” were analyzed, containing 395,956observations of physical development (length and body weight indicators) of children, adolescents, and young people living in 49constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Priority was given to research in the constituent entities for which regional standards had never been developed or for which they were developed 15–20years or more ago. As a result, at least 2constituent entities were analyzed in each federal district. Big data processing using machine learning was carried out on the basis of the PostgreSQL database. A web application was created that implemented the functions of tabular display of data, construction of histograms with the ability to select parameters and subsequent data publication on the map of the Russian Federation. RESULTS:In Russia at the beginning of the 21st century, the characteristics of physical development of students living in diffe­rent constituent entities of the Russian Federation were established, which allowed us to talk about the presence of “regional scenarios” that must be taken into account when developing standards. At the age of 15, the range of average values of growth indicators for boys in the constituent entities ranged from 161.70±0.20cm in the Kursk Region to 174.55±0.40cm in the Krasnodar Territory (the difference was 12.85cm, p=0.001), for girls— from 154.60±0.50cm in the Republic of Tyva to 165.69±0.55cm in St.Petersburg (the difference was 11.09cm, p=0.001). The range of body weight of 15-year-old boys in the regions was from 50.17±0.70kg in the Kursk region to 66.00±0.80kg in the Khabarovsk region (difference 15.83kg, p=0.001), girls— from 46.90±0.60kg in the Chelyabinsk region to 58.40±0.70kg in the Khabarovsk region (difference 8.50kg, p=0.001). CONCLUSION:40regional standards for the physical development of the child population have been developed in a standar­dized manner, which allows taking into account regional characteristics and makes it possible to use them in practical healthcare in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

The Fate of Deep Permafrost Carbon in Northern High Latitudes in the 21st Century: A Process‐Based Modeling Analysis

AbstractWarming in permafrost regions stimulates carbon (C) release through decomposition, but increasing atmospheric CO2 and available soil nitrogen enhance plant productivity at the same time. To date, a large uncertainty in the regional C dynamics still remains. Here we use a process‐based biogeochemical model by considering C exposure from thawed permafrost and observational data to quantify permafrost C emissions and ecosystem C budget in northern high latitudes in the 21st century. Permafrost degradation will make 119.3 Pg and 251.6 Pg C available for decomposition by 2100 under the Shared Socioeconomic Pathway (SSP)126 and SSP585, respectively. However, only 4–8% of the newly thawed permafrost C is expected to be released into the atmosphere by 2100. Cumulatively, permafrost degradation will reduce ecosystem C stocks by 3.37 Pg and 15.37 Pg under the SSP126 and SSP585, respectively. Additionally, CO2 fertilization effects would stimulate plant productivity and increase ecosystem C stocks substantially. The combined effects of climate change, CO2 fertilization, and permafrost degradation on C fluxes are typically more profound than any single factor, emphasizing the intricate interplay between these elements in shaping permafrost C‐climate feedbacks. Our study suggests that the majority of the thawed C will remain sequestered in previously frozen layers in this century, posing a significant challenge to climate change mitigation efforts once any process accelerates the decomposition of this huge amount of thawed C.

What we mean

In the twenty-first century, cyberspace and the ‘real world’ have become inseparable. The stability and security of cyberspace therefore affect, in increasingly profound ways, the economies, international reputations, national security, military capabilities and global influence of states. In their short history, operations in cyberspace have already been used extensively by states and their non-state supporters for many purposes. They are an inevitable aspect of contemporary international affairs while carrying significant risk. In this Adelphi book, Marcus Willett, a former deputy head of GCHQ, argues that there is no coherent or widely shared understanding of what cyber operations really are, how they are used and what they can do; or of their implications for strategic affairs and international law; or what their ‘responsible’ use really entails. The myths and misunderstandings that abound tend to dull the conceptual clarity needed by strategic policymakers and overseers, and they complicate the essential task in a liberal democracy of maintaining public consent for, and legitimisation of, the development and use of such capabilities. The book sheds light on these issues, exposing myths and clarifying misunderstandings.

The future

In the twenty-first century, cyberspace and the ‘real world’ have become inseparable. The stability and security of cyberspace therefore affect, in increasingly profound ways, the economies, international reputations, national security, military capabilities and global influence of states. In their short history, operations in cyberspace have already been used extensively by states and their non-state supporters for many purposes. They are an inevitable aspect of contemporary international affairs while carrying significant risk. In this Adelphi book, Marcus Willett, a former deputy head of GCHQ, argues that there is no coherent or widely shared understanding of what cyber operations really are, how they are used and what they can do; or of their implications for strategic affairs and international law; or what their ‘responsible’ use really entails. The myths and misunderstandings that abound tend to dull the conceptual clarity needed by strategic policymakers and overseers, and they complicate the essential task in a liberal democracy of maintaining public consent for, and legitimisation of, the development and use of such capabilities. The book sheds light on these issues, exposing myths and clarifying misunderstandings.

Between Cosmology and Technology: Nonhuman Near-Omniscience as Animist Practice in Nnedi Okorafor's Lagoon

ABSTRACT: This article develops the term nonhuman near-omniscience to examine the narrative dynamics behind narrators who know almost everything and whose super-human knowledge draws on African cosmologies. Noting the prevalence of such narration in African sf, the article takes Nnedi Okorafor's novel Lagoon (2014) as an example of nonhuman near-omniscience, focusing on the role of the storytelling spider Udide Okwanka as the novel's metanarrator. It traces Udide's use of uncertainty, paradox, and metafictional slippages, while also noting parallels between Udide's trickster qualities and technology in the novel—both human-made and alien—that likewise generate super-human registers of knowledge. As a rejection of the binaries of cosmology/technology, human/nonhuman, and realist/nonrealist, the article considers nonhuman near-omniscience as a practice of relationality, based on Harry Garuba's framework of "animist materialism" and scholarship on animism as a relational epistemology from divergent Indigenous contexts. The paper makes two overarching claims: one, that nonhuman near-omniscience draws on the conception of deities in animist traditions that are typically characterized by relationality, rather than the absolute power commonly associated with the omniscient narrator in Abrahamic traditions; and two, that nonhuman near-omniscience is a metafictional practice that is pertinent not only to our understanding of contemporary African literary genres, but to larger questions of knowledge production in the twenty-first century.

The strategic utility of cyber operations

In the twenty-first century, cyberspace and the ‘real world’ have become inseparable. The stability and security of cyberspace therefore affect, in increasingly profound ways, the economies, international reputations, national security, military capabilities and global influence of states. In their short history, operations in cyberspace have already been used extensively by states and their non-state supporters for many purposes. They are an inevitable aspect of contemporary international affairs while carrying significant risk. In this Adelphi book, Marcus Willett, a former deputy head of GCHQ, argues that there is no coherent or widely shared understanding of what cyber operations really are, how they are used and what they can do; or of their implications for strategic affairs and international law; or what their ‘responsible’ use really entails. The myths and misunderstandings that abound tend to dull the conceptual clarity needed by strategic policymakers and overseers, and they complicate the essential task in a liberal democracy of maintaining public consent for, and legitimisation of, the development and use of such capabilities. The book sheds light on these issues, exposing myths and clarifying misunderstandings.

Christian Zionism in the Twenty-First Century: American Evangelical Public Opinion on Israel by Motti Inbari and Kirill Bumin and: Messianic Zionism in the Digital Age: Jews, Noahides, and the Third Temple Imaginary by Rachel Z. Feldman (review)

Christian Zionism in the Twenty-First Century: American Evangelical Public Opinion on Israel by Motti Inbari and Kirill Bumin and: Messianic Zionism in the Digital Age: Jews, Noahides, and the Third Temple Imaginary by Rachel Z. Feldman (review)

The cyber dimension of the Russia–Ukraine war

In the twenty-first century, cyberspace and the ‘real world’ have become inseparable. The stability and security of cyberspace therefore affect, in increasingly profound ways, the economies, international reputations, national security, military capabilities and global influence of states. In their short history, operations in cyberspace have already been used extensively by states and their non-state supporters for many purposes. They are an inevitable aspect of contemporary international affairs while carrying significant risk. In this Adelphi book, Marcus Willett, a former deputy head of GCHQ, argues that there is no coherent or widely shared understanding of what cyber operations really are, how they are used and what they can do; or of their implications for strategic affairs and international law; or what their ‘responsible’ use really entails. The myths and misunderstandings that abound tend to dull the conceptual clarity needed by strategic policymakers and overseers, and they complicate the essential task in a liberal democracy of maintaining public consent for, and legitimisation of, the development and use of such capabilities. The book sheds light on these issues, exposing myths and clarifying misunderstandings.