World Trade Research Articles

Securing the Digital Commerce Spectrum and Cyber Security Strategies for Web, E-commerce, M-commerce, and E-mail Security

Secure protection of sensitive data and financial transactions is of the utmost importance in the dynamic world of online trade. In this study, we present a full-stack security architecture that uses five separate algorithms: ECF, Transaction Anomaly Detection, Adaptive Threat Intelligence, Behavioral Biometric Authentication, and Dynamic Encryption Protocol. By creating encryption keys on the fly while the user logs in, the DEP method lays a solid groundwork for safe data transfer. Behavioral biometric authentication (BBA) uses DEP output to verify users based on their distinct behavior, which is an extra layer of security. By combining both current and past threat information, the ATI algorithm is able to constantly adjust security protocols, providing a preventative shield against new dangers. TAD is an expert at detecting anomalies in online purchases, which helps keep financial transactions honest. When ECF and DEP work together, they filter email content, making communication more secure. Flowcharts help to illustrate the interactions between various algorithms, which helps to understand their operations in detail. Every algorithm's importance is brought to light by an ablation study, which shows how each one contributes and how they all work together to affect the overall security posture. The suggested security framework outperforms the state-of-the-art in terms of efficacy, adaptability, and usability, according to performance evaluations conducted using a number of metrics. These findings can help decision-makers build a strong security plan that is specific to the challenges of online shopping. To conclude, the suggested framework is an integrated and complementary strategy that will strengthen online trade in the face of several cyber dangers while simultaneously protecting the confidentiality, authenticity, and availability of all associated communications and transactions.

The Role of Transport, ICT and Power Infrastructure in the Ethiopian Economy

Infrastructure development plays an important role in reducing poverty, assuring food security and sustainable development of a country. One of the key challenges hindering the economic growth of developing countries is the lack of proper transport, Information and Communication Technology (ICT), and energy sector infrastructures. This research aims to examine the importance of transport, ICT and power sector in Ethiopia’s economic growth and identify the main challenges these sectors have been facing based on data obtained from different secondary sources such as websites of the World Bank and Trading Economics, official reports, and published works. Descriptive statistical analysis was implemented to describe the secondary data obtained, while graphs, tables, and charts were used to visualise the results. Despite the difficulties in establishing and sustaining necessary infrastructure, research indicates that the growth of Ethiopia’s economy is largely attributed to infrastructure development. Furthermore, year after year, progress has been made in each sector of development, though there are still obstacles to overcome. Poor quality of road, transport and ICT infrastructure have been key factors of poor development in the country. There is an imbalance between the power needed and the available power. Given Ethiopia’s abundance of resources, the country must continue to prioritise infrastructure development.

Demogravity: World Population and Trade in the 21st Century

Demogravity: World Population and Trade in the 21st Century

Implementation of expert systems in the field of trade

There is currently a steady rise in interest in the development and utilization of intelligent information systems, particularly expert systems. This article explores the importance and advantages of employing expert systems in the realm of trade and business. It investigates how expert systems can enhance decision-making processes, optimize inventory management, elevate customer service levels, and provide more precise market analysis. Additionally, the article outlines typical examples of using expert systems in trade and highlights their potential for enhancing business efficiency. Successful implementation of modern technologies in the retail sector has become a dominant factor for optimizing business processes and enhancing competitiveness. Expert systems, capable of analyzing, decision-making, and automating key aspects of trade, have become an important tool for contemporary companies. This introduction proposes an exploration into the realm of expert systems and their application in trade, considering the advantages and possibilities they offer for effective management and strategic development in this field. In the modern world of trade, where competition is constantly escalating, having efficient tools for swift and accurate decision-making is crucial. The implementation of expert systems is one of the key directions that ensures process automation and enhances the level of analytics in the retail sector. This introduction elucidates the possibilities of applying expert systems in the retail industry, offering a comprehensive overview of the benefits they can bring, while also examining examples of successful implementations of these systems in practice.

Impact of TBTs on Trade in ICT Goods: Differentiating by Regulatory Objectives

Abstract This paper analyses how different types of technical barriers to trade (TBTs) imposed on imports of information and communications technology (ICT) goods globally affected the value and volume of imported goods during the period of 1996–2018. Key words cited in the TBTs give an indication of the aims behind the imposition of TBTs. The results indicate that TBTs have a strong positive impact on the value of imports. While many key words cited in TBTs notified to the World Trade Organization (WTO) affect the value and volume of imports in a positive way, certain other TBTs function as trade barriers.

The Impact of the Sino-US Intellectual Property Cases on the Evolution of Chinese Law and the Future Globalization Trend of Chinese Law from the Perspective of the WTO

Abstract This paper critically examines the trade relations between China and the United States, with a particular focus on the sensitive issue of intellectual property rights (IPR) trade frictions and disputes. It delves into the root causes of IPR conflicts between the two nations by analyzing IPR cases that have arisen since China acceded to the World Trade Organization. Notably, during the period from 2001 to 2016, the United States initiated a total of 243 “337 investigations” cases against China, which represents 77.66% of all such investigations targeting China. This study also considers the strategic implications of these cases and assesses the impact of the evolving IPR system in China. In 2008, China’s IPR policies were notably centered on enhancing protection, which is reflected in text mining results where the keyword “protection” emerged as one of the top eight high-frequency words, with occurrences ranging from 25 to 73. Furthermore, this analysis forecasts the future trends in China’s legal globalization, informed by the evolution of its intellectual property law.

Will Ethiopia’s Membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO) Enhance Its Total Exports and Real GDP Growth?

Will Ethiopia’s Membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO) Enhance Its Total Exports and Real GDP Growth?

Sustainable Development through Regulatory Competition without Effective UN and WTO Legal Restraints?

The current human disasters – like illegal wars of aggression, violent suppression of human and democratic rights, health pandemics, climate change, ocean pollution, overfishing and other biodiversity losses, non-compliance with United Nations (UN) and World Trade Organization (WTO) law – reflect governance failures and insufficient cooperation (section I.) to protect the ‘sustainable development goals’ (SDGs). Since 1950, Europe’s multilevel constitutionalism succeeded in progressively limiting transnational governance failures; yet, it is not followed outside Europe (section II.). Geopolitical rivalries (e. g. among authoritarian and democratic states) and competing national and regional regulations (e. g. on decarbonisation, digitalisation, and securitisation of economies) increasingly undermine UN and WTO legal restraints and judicial remedies (see section III.). The more globalisation is perceived as creating vulnerabilities justifying national security restrictions (e. g. against spread of viruses, weaponisation of interdependence), the more democracies resort to plurilateral second-best responses like trade, investment and environmental agreements conditioning market access on respect for human rights and greenhouse gas reductions (section IV.). This contribution explains why regulatory competition, ‘authoritarian alliances’, and their influence on plurilateral agreements (e. g. in Asia) render ‘constitutional UN/WTO reforms’ and realisation of the SDGs unlikely.

The WTO Condemns Trump’s Tariffs on Steel and Aluminium, but Biden Condemns the WTO

Recently World Trade Organization (WTO) panels declared the illegitimacy of the tariff increases imposed in 2018 by the US government, based on national security grounds, on imports of steel and aluminium products. This paper addresses some of the key legal issues raised in the four controversial panel decisions, leaving some final reflections on the future of multilateral trade system. Given the unsettled nature of the terrain, we firstly focus on the WTO rules that are relevant to the tariffs imposed by Trump in 2018, before dwelling on the complainants’ arguments and panels’ findings. Two indications or conclusion can be drawn from the paper. First, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Article XXI doesn’t constitute a self-judging or non-justiciable provision, differently from what argued by the US Government. Second, the controversial reports will not resolve the ongoing conflict initiated by US against the WTO. In fact Biden, far from distancing himself from Trump’s measures, openly condemned the panel’s decisions through an official statement widely disseminated by the media. The practical significance of the recent condemnation of the US tariffs is even less evident when considering the persistent issue of the appointment of members to the WTO Appellate Body. If multilateralism continues to falter, the US may no longer be the only country winking at bilateralism, as evidenced by the recent rules adopted by the EU. Security Exceptions, Dispute Settlement Understanding, Antidumping Duties, WTO, international economics, European Union, GATT, escape clauses, multilateral trade system

Not Trading With the Enemy: The Case of Computer Chips

Drawing on the analysis of international trade law and the research on the regulation of the semiconductor industry in key players, the United States of America (US), the Netherlands, and Japan, this paper explores under which conditions export controls are compatible with the international trade law framework. To this end, it focuses on the scope of national security exceptions under the agreements of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and examines to which extent export controls on the semiconductor industry can be justified under such exceptions. It discusses the direction in which the current practice and jurisprudence of WTO panels are heading and the possible effects of governments’ ‘decoupling’ strategies toward China on shaping international trade law. This paper suggests that governments might have difficulties justifying their imminent cybersecurity and geo-economic concerns under existing security exceptions and that they should consider either clarifying the scope of such exceptions or changing the approach to dealing with national security issues under the WTO framework. Export controls, computer chips, semiconductors, WTO law, decoupling with China, security exception, geopolitical rivalry

Intellectual Property Regimes in Central Asia: Assessing Innovation Performance, International Agreements, And WTO Participation

This article presents a comprehensive examination of the intricate relationship between intellectual property (IP) and trade in the context of Central Asia, a region characterized by burgeoning economic development and the pursuit of international trade integration. The study has two overarching sections: the first examines the intellectual property landscape, while the second elaborates the region's participation in the World Trade Organization (WTO). IP segment commences with an evaluation of Central Asian countries' innovation performance, drawing insights from the Global Innovation Index 2023. It proceeds to dissect the patterns of ratification of international IP agreements in the region. Subsequently, it delves into the implications of intellectual property activities, offering a comparative analysis of the experiences of Kazakhstan. Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan in 2021. Shifting focus to the WTO section, the study examines the role of the WTO in Central Asia's trade and IP landscape. It provides an overview and analysis of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) and its influence on IP protection. Finally, it explores the challenges and advancements in IP protection, laying bare the contrast between Kazakhstan. Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. This article yields a multifaceted understanding of the intricate interplay between IP and trade within the Central Asian region. It unravels critical insights, emphasizing the evolving significance of IP in the landscape of international trade and offering a robust foundation for further exploration and policy deliberations in this dynamic domain.

Зовнішньоекономічна торговельна діяльність України: аналіз, тенденції та перспективи розвитку

Foreign trade relations play a key role in the national economy, as they are the basis for the international exchange of goods and services between different countries. Therefore, the study of the state and prospects for the development of Ukraine’s foreign trade activity is relevant task for further effective economic growth. This study is devoted to the study of the impact of foreign trade relations on the economic development of Ukraine. The main functions, principles and rules of the World Trade Organization (WTO), which ensures the competitiveness of products in the world market, are disclosed. The main foreign trade partners of the country are studied, the structure of exports and imports of goods and the state of the foreign trade balance of Ukraine for the last three years are considered. The research model is based on an integrated approach, using methods such as analytical, statistical, analysis and synthesis. The research work analyzes the theoretical aspect of foreign trade relations, the state of Ukraine’s foreign trade and develops recommendations for their improvement. The practical significance lies in the analysis of the current state of Ukraine’s foreign trade relations, identifying the main problems and identifying possible ways to solve them. This makes it possible to define precise directions for the further development of foreign economic activity, to develop effective strategies for attracting foreign investment, expanding export opportunities, as well as strengthening trade partnerships with other countries. The social effects of this article are to strengthen economic development and increase Ukraine’s competitiveness in the international arena.

The Future of Trade and Environment: A Roadmap for Reconciling Two Competing Goals

The global market has experienced an unprecedented increase in cross-border trading, culminating in substantial economic growth for numerous nations. However, this extensive process of economic integration has cast a shadow on various associated domains. Trading activities, intricately linked to the environment due to their reliance on natural resources for production, have indisputably left their mark on global environmental conditions. International trade and environmental preservation, as distinct disciplines, operate under separate sets of laws and regulations. Environmental laws encompass multilateral environmental agreements, and regional and national regulations, while trading activities are governed by the multilateral agreements of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and bilateral agreements. The integration of international trade with environmental measures has become a contentious subject. Proponents of trade argue that it facilitates global access to environment-friendly goods and technologies, thereby facilitating the maintenance of high environmental standards. In contrast, environmentalists contend that international trade laws and practices often impede the governmental efforts to implement regulatory measures aimed at pollution prevention and environmental restoration. The WTO has faced criticism for its perceived inaction in addressing environmental concerns ensuing from trade, despite acknowledging environmental protection as an objective in the preamble of the Marrakesh Agreement. The global discourse on environmental protection has intensified, seeking to accord environmental issues the same weight as trade disputes. This article endeavours to delve into the multifaceted interactions between international trade and environmental protection, scrutinizing their regulatory mechanisms while highlighting the underlying grounds for the disputes that arise between these two realms. Agreement on Fisheries subsidies, Committee on Trade and Environment, Environmental Protection, Free Trade, GATT, Multilateral Environmental Agreements, WTO

How Much Neoprotectionism is There in Contemporary World Trade?

Abstract Negative effects of globalisation and liberalisation of trade are countered using protectionist measures. Contemporary protectionism, typically termed neoprotectionism, is put into practice using a wide variety of non-tariff instruments, with a considerably lesser degree of transparency compared to tariffs, which are more difficult to identify and measure. The aim of this paper is to determine the dynamics of protection, as well as the category and geographical structure for the use of trade policy instruments in the world goods trade in the years 2010–2022. The study was based on source materials from the Global Trade Alert (GTA) and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The conducted analyses showed that interventions taken in the world goods trade in the years 2010–2022 were primarily trade restrictions executed using non-tariff measures. In terms of its geographical distribution the relatively greatest scope of protectionism observed was for the trade policy of China and the USA. In terms of the product category, the sale of agricultural produce was protected the most. The realised model of protectionism differed depending on the group of products being traded, the standard of economic development of the country implementing trade policy measures, its export specialisation and the degree of self-sufficiency. The protectionist character of the trade policy was also enhanced during economic crises.

Grey comprehensive evaluation of development performance of provinces in China based on spatiotemporal probability function and variable weight strategy

In the new stage of promoting high-quality economic development, the effect of the transformation of development momentum and the ability of sustainable development has become the key factors for the competitiveness of provinces in China. Especially in the context of the impact of COVID-19 and the obstacles of world trade protectionism, the sustainability of development performance is increasingly important. In the past, when evaluating the development performance of various provinces in China, a single index weight was usually used. In view of evaluation criteria, the lack of consideration of regional differentiation factors would result in the evaluation results deviating from reality. This paper introduces the entropy weight method to determine the weight of regional indicators of differentiated development. Based on the space-time probability function, a grey clustering evaluation model of regional development performance is constructed to conduct a comprehensive grey evaluation of the development performance of various provinces in China from 2009 to 2019. It is found that the new evaluation model can correct the deficiencies of similar probability functions and single index weight and obtain more accurate evaluation results. It’s found that the development performance evaluation results of each province are always in a dynamic adjustment process, which needs to be verified with the help of subsequent expansion analysis.

Technical aspects of the World Trade Organization

Technical aspects of the World Trade Organization

Intellectual property rights and fair vaccine distribution: A new perspective on the TRIPS Agreement

The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted inequities concerning global vaccine distribution, as well as issues surrounding patents and intellectual property rights for these vaccines. This paper addresses the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS Agreement) regarding vaccines. Adhered to by all state members of the World Trade Organization (WTO), the agreement sets minimum regulatory standards for governments on intellectual property, including vaccines. Our contribution is a new analysis of TRIPS Art. 31 Bis concerning flexibilities in its terms of use on global vaccine distribution. We consider existing solutions for fairer vaccine distribution, such as governments enforcing a compulsory vaccine licence, and governmental/individual charitable efforts. We then focus on issues with know-how distribution and access to knowledge in the TRIPS context. We conclude that the enhanced provisions of TRIPS are ill-suited to global pandemics. To ensure fairer global vaccine distribution, we argue that patent pools and further TRIPS amendments are needed to endow less and least-developed countries with the ability to implement government-use compulsory licenses and to negotiate compensation terms later under judicial review. Further, to enable countries lacking the technical manufacturing capabilities to produce vaccines under license, TRIPS needs to be amended to permit technology and know-how transfer (Holder, 2023).

SINO-AFRICA AND TECHNOLOGICAL TRANSFER: IMPLICATION ON SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

Technology is critical to industrialization and economic development of any nation and it is one of the serious bottlenecks in African industrialisation. There is no doubt that technology transfer is one of the less studied subjects in China-Africa relations. Foreign direct investment is an important factor for both technology transfer and economic growth in developing countries like Nigeria. Technological advancement has also become a major challenge to industrialization in Nigeria and to improve her economy, the Nigerian government had made various efforts at acquiring foreign technology to drive the development processes. The Nigerian government had signed pact with the Chinese government in critical areas such as agriculture, manufacturing, military, industry, education and other social sectors through Technological Transfer (TT) and Technical Cooperation (TC) that will aid knowledge sharing and transfer for the purpose of improving the economy. In view of this, the study examines the implication the Sino-Africa and technological transfer on sustainable development in Nigeria. The study employed the interpretivism philosophy and the qualitative approach was adopted in data collection and analysis. Secondary data were sourced from the United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics (UNCTS) Database, Nigeria National Bureau of Statistics, and the World Trade Organisation (WTO) Statistics database, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) figures were from the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Database, International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the United Nations Statistics Database (UNdata). Other sources were the International Monetary Fund (IMF) Database, International Financial Statistics (IFS) of the World Bank; publications of Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) and other agencies of government as well as newspapers and journals. Also, key informant interviews were conducted with Chinese expatriates in Lagos and Ogun State, Nigeria. Data collected were analysed using content analysis method. Findings of the study reveals that there is no clear-cut policy statement on Sino-Africa technological transfer and knowledge sharing; thus, the Nigerian government cannot sufficiently absorb new technology from Chinese multi-national corporations as most of these corporations always come as agents of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) or contractors. The study concludes that adaptation and implementation of policy on technological transfer cannot promote sustainable development in Nigeria. The study recommends among others that knowledge and technology transfer should form the basis of a regulatory framework of the national FDI policy. Also, there is need for the establishment of training institutes in each State of the federation so as to facilitate technological transfer. In addition, there should be collaboration between the established training institutes and higher institutions of learning so that students can have practical knowledge on advanced equipment, methodologies and technologies that will engender sustainable development in Nigeria within a decade.

Normal Lung Function and Mortality in World Trade Center Responders and National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey III Participants.

Rationale: Low FEV1 is a biomarker of increased mortality. The association of normal lung function and mortality is not well described. Objectives: To evaluate the FEV1-mortality association among participants with normal lung function. Methods: A total of 10,999 Fire Department of the City of New York (FDNY) responders and 10,901 Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) participants, aged 18-65 years with FEV1 ⩾80% predicted, were analyzed, with FEV1 percent predicted calculated using Global Lung Function Initiative Global race-neutral reference equations. Mortality data were obtained from linkages to the National Death Index. Cox proportional hazards models estimated the association between FEV1 and all-cause mortality, controlling for age, sex, race/ethnicity, smoking history, and, for FDNY, work assignment. Cohorts were followed for a maximum of 20.3 years. Measurements and Main Results: We observed 504 deaths (4.6%) of 10,999 for FDNY and 1,237 deaths (9.4% [weighted]) of 10,901 for NHANES III. Relative to FEV1 ⩾120% predicted, mortality was significantly higher for FEV1 100-109%, 90-99%, and 80-89% predicted in the FDNY cohort. In the NHANES III cohort, mortality was significantly higher for FEV1 90-99% and 80-89% predicted. Each 10% higher predicted FEV1 was associated with 15% (hazard ratio, 0.85; 95% confidence interval, 0.80-0.91) and 23% (hazard ratio, 0.77; 95% confidence interval, 0.71-0.84) lower mortality for FDNY and NHANES III, respectively. Conclusions: In both cohorts, higher FEV1 is associated with lower mortality, suggesting higher FEV1 is a biomarker of better health. These findings demonstrate that a single cross-sectional measurement of FEV1 is predictive of mortality over two decades, even when FEV1 is in the normal range.

Molecular Characterization and Genetic diversity of Bacillus cereus isolated from karish cheese at Governorate of El-Menoufia

Food safety is an emerging global issue that impacts world trade and human health. Bacillus cereus is among the most significant global foods borne pathogens. 50 total random samples of karish cheese were obtained from a variety of food markets in Governorate of El-Menoufia. They were investigated bacteriologically in order to isolate, B. cereus species. According to the bacteriological analysis, 70% of the tested samples of karish cheese contained B. cereus species. The B. cereus isolates were resistance to Amoxicillin, Penicillin, and Amoxicillin Clavulanic acid. Contrarily, they were susceptible to Ciprofloxacin, Gentamicin, Chloramphenicol, Tetracycline and Trimethoprim Sulfamethoxazole.