World Trade Research Articles (Page 1)

Strong verbal and written communication abilities are more valuable in today's globalized world because of the increased frequency and complexity of cross-border encounters. Professionals require a high degree of linguistic competency and flexibility because of the frequent international communication necessary to handle complex business scenarios, laws, and fluctuating market conditions. The study is driven by a desire to customize language instruction to suit the unique needs of professionals involved in cross-border trade. The goal is to ensure that the skills students learn are relevant to the complexities of this industry. This study tackles the challenge of improving Cross-Border Trade English Education by integrating big data and Artificial Intelligence (AI). The Artificial Intelligence-based Cross-Border Trade English Education (AI-CTEE) uses Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks to create personalized learning experiences, adapt the curriculum dynamically, and provide real-time language support. The AI-CTEE model examines long-term dependencies in sequential data to determine how LSTM-powered language education affects linguistic competency in cross-border trade. The longitudinal study uses LSTM networks to track language proficiency. Academics, communication, and cross-cultural adaptability are assessed. This study investigates the effects of ongoing exposure to LSTM-powered language instruction on the maintenance of language acquisition and the effectiveness of its practitioners in foreign trade settings. Insights into the long-term effects of combining AI with big data in the AI-CTEE model are provided by the study's main conclusions and outcomes. This study highlights the necessity to strategically enhance language skills to survive in the ever-changing world of global trade, contributing to the continuing discourse regarding new language education methods. The proposed AI-CTEE model increases the retention rate by 98.5%, CPU utilization by 59%, memory consumption rate by 60%, response time analysis of 194 milliseconds, and interaction period by 78 minutes compared to other existing models.

Strong verbal and written communication abilities are more valuable in today’s globalized world because of the increased frequency and complexity of cross-border encounters. Professionals require a high degree of linguistic competency and flexibility because of the frequent international communication necessary to handle complex business scenarios, laws, and fluctuating market conditions. The study is driven by a desire to customize language instruction to suit the unique needs of professionals involved in cross-border trade. The goal is to ensure that the skills students learn are relevant to the complexities of this industry. This study tackles the challenge of improving Cross-Border Trade English Education by integrating big data and Artificial Intelligence (AI). The Artificial Intelligence-based Cross-Border Trade English Education (AI-CTEE) uses Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks to create personalized learning experiences, adapt the curriculum dynamically, and provide real-time language support. The AI-CTEE model examines long-term dependencies in sequential data to determine how LSTM-powered language education affects linguistic competency in cross-border trade. The longitudinal study uses LSTM networks to track language proficiency. Academics, communication, and cross-cultural adaptability are assessed. This study investigates the effects of ongoing exposure to LSTM-powered language instruction on the maintenance of language acquisition and the effectiveness of its practitioners in foreign trade settings. Insights into the long-term effects of combining AI with big data in the AI-CTEE model are provided by the study’s main conclusions and outcomes. This study highlights the necessity to strategically enhance language skills to survive in the ever-changing world of global trade, contributing to the continuing discourse regarding new language education methods. The proposed AI-CTEE model increases the retention rate by 98.5%, CPU utilization by 59%, memory consumption rate by 60%, response time analysis of 194 milliseconds, and interaction period by 78 minutes compared to other existing models.

Abstract This paper is the first to propose an international climate agreement that both addresses the free-rider problem in international climate policy and is also World Trade Organization (WTO)-compliant. The Paris Climate Agreement is WTO-compliant but is falling far short of its goals since it does not address the free-rider problem. The Nordhaus (Climate clubs: Overcoming free riding in international climate policy. The American Economic Review. 105(4), 1339–1370, DOI: 10.1257/aer.15000001, 2015) proposal addresses the free-rider problem, but it would violate the WTO commitments of many countries. We propose a climate club for carbon dioxide (and similar clubs for methane and nitrous oxide) where each of the member countries commits to net-zero emissions by 2050 (using any regulatory approach) with intermediate goals and imposes various trade penalties on non-members and delinquent members. The proposal includes accommodation for developing countries. Our proposal is WTO-compatible under GATT Article XX(g) since it does not impose a specific regulatory approach for achieving net-zero emissions. This climate club should significantly reduce emissions since it meets the conditions of multiple sub-fields of economic research on what is required for successful cooperative agreements on common resources. Compared to an agreement imposing carbon pricing only, these climate clubs are both more economically efficient and politically acceptable since they provide incentives for important complementary climate policies.

This study examines the dynamic decoupling relationship between energy consumption and export growth in China since its accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) (2002–2018) by combining the noncompetitive input–output model, Tapio decoupling model, and the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) model. The results reveal the substantial energy consumption generated by China’s export trade, emphasizing the urgency of reducing energy consumption in export trade for energy conservation and emissions reduction. Since its WTO accession, China has experienced sustained improvement in the energy decoupling effect during the growth of export trade, entering a period of strong decoupling from 2014 to 2018. The expanded export scale remains a major obstacle to decoupling export trade growth from energy consumption, while decreased energy intensity in exports is a significant driving force for energy decoupling, with relatively minor impact from changes in the export trade structure. By integrating non-competitive input–output modeling, Tapio decoupling analysis, and LMDI decomposition, this study develops a novel framework to investigate the structural drivers of energy–export decoupling in China from 2002 to 2018. Bridging methods from energy systems, trade economics, and policy modeling, it contributes to the field of multi-disciplinary sustainability by offering sector-level insights and decomposition-based evidence to support more efficient, equitable, and sustainable trade transitions.

This article aims to explore and assess Thailand's legal preparedness for the liberalization of architectural professional services within the ASEAN framework. It focuses on the Mutual Recognition Arrangement (MRA) for the architectural profession, which is part of the ASEAN Framework Agreement on Service (AFAS) aimed at creating a single market for trade in services among ASEAN. The article points out the necessity of amending the main law, the Architects Act, and related subsidiary laws to be in line with international obligations and the changing context of the labor market, particularly to facilitate architects from ASEAN member countries to practice their profession in Thailand under specified conditions. The liberalization of trade in services is a key obligation for Thailand under the World Trade Organization (WTO) through the General Agreement on Trade in Service (GATS), which includes professional services like architecture. In 2007, Thailand signed the ASEAN MRA on Architectural Services to set standards and qualifications for "ASEAN Architects" to enable them to mobility and practice more easily within member countries. However, the Architects Act B.E. 2543 (1999) in effect at the time did not have clear provisions to support international professional practice under this agreement. Consequently, the Architect Council of Thailand had to review and amend the law to remove legal obstacles and prepare for the implementation of the agreement. The objectives of this study are: 1) to study the Architects Act and other related laws concerning trade in architectural services; and 2) to propose guidelines for the development of subsidiary laws in line with the agreement on architectural services to professional organizations and educational institutions, to prepare for the professional practice of ASEAN architects. The review of related laws and agreements systematically analyzes the key elements of the MRA on architectural services, which detail the qualifications of ASEAN architects, such as having a professional license, a minimum of 10 years of work experience, and continuous professional development. The analysis also covers the Architects Act B.E. 2543 (amended in B.E. 2566), highlighting amendments that added provisions to support international agreements. These changes allow the Architect Council to issue necessary subsidiary laws for foreign architects who wish to register as ASEAN Architects in Thailand. The research also examines other relevant laws that could be obstacles for foreign professionals, such as the Foreign Business Act B.E. 2542 (1999) and the Ministry of Labor's announcement that prohibits foreigners from working in the architectural profession. The article points out that even though these laws have exceptions for professionals entering under international agreements, they still lack clear coordination and direct linkage with the professional law, leading to confusion in practice. This qualitative research, which relies on document analysis, interviews, and considerations from a working group of stakeholders, aims to understand the gaps and limitations of existing laws and provide reasoned policy recommendations. The study findings indicate that Thailand has prepared subsidiary laws to support the registration of ASEAN architects, covering both Thai architects who wish to become ASEAN Architects and foreign architects from ASEAN countries. However, these legal measures are merely defensive and have not yet led to a significant movement of architectural professionals within ASEAN, due to practical limitations. These include the requirement for foreign architects to still obtain a professional license in the host country and the domestic laws of each country that continue to pose certain limitations or obstacles. Therefore, the researchers recommend proactive measures to encourage actual professional practice, such as promoting negotiations and cooperation with professional organizations in other ASEAN countries to create pilot projects, disseminating information about the MRA and the liberalization of services through professional associations and relevant agencies, and adjusting educational curricula to align with architectural standards within ASEAN to enhance the competitiveness of Thai students and graduates in the international labor market. Additionally, they suggest issuing joint operational guidelines between the Architect Council and related government agencies to ensure transparent and practical implementation.

This article examines Jordans implementation of prearrival processing under the World Trade Organizations Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA) analysing its alignment with global standards and impact on trade efficiency in a resource constrained trade dependent nation. With trade constituting over 70% of Jordans GDP prearrival processing allowing advance submission of import documentation offers a critical mechanism to enhance economic competitiveness by reducing customs delays and costs. Using a qualitative case study approach informed by the authors consultancy with the EUs Trade and Transport Facilitation Programme (TTFP) and stakeholder interviews, the study explores Jordans prearrival processing framework rooted in the Jordan Customs Law and Proclamation 25. It assesses the systems evolution, low adoption with fewer than ten declarations since 2004 informal practices, and alignment with international standards like the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Revised Kyoto Convention and TFA. Key challenges include absent digital submission capabilities, unclear regulations, and interagency coordination gaps hindering potential. Despite technical compliance, Jordan lags behind leaders like Singapore and Japan due to procedural complexity and limited stakeholder engagement. The article proposes reforms including digitalization, simplified rules awareness campaigns, and interagency coordination to bridge gaps offering lessons for developing nations seeking to leverage prearrival processing for trade facilitation and economic resilience in a globalized economy.

Reduced gray-white contrast in chronic post-traumatic stress disorder in World Trade Center responders.

The late 17th and early 18th centuries witnessed a period of intense commercial rivalry and networked economic activity spanning the East India Sea and the Persian Gulf. While large chartered corporations such as the British East India Company (EIC) and the Dutch East India Company (VOC) dominated maritime trade, independent merchants played a crucial yet often overlooked role in shaping global commerce. This study examines the business networks of Thomas Bowrey (1659-1713), an English merchant who operated in this competitive landscape, navigating the complex trade routes that connected India, Persia, and the Ottoman Empire. Drawing on archival records and employing social network analysis (SNA), it examines the dyadic ties linking Bowrey to a constellation of private financiers, investors, and merchant partners. In contrast to the monopolistic structures of chartered companies like the British East India Company (EIC), Bowrey’s decentralized business model relied on transregional collaboration, risk-sharing arrangements, and joint ownership ventures such as the merchant ship Mary Galley. This study highlights how independent actors resisted corporate dominance through innovative financial instruments, maritime insurance, and inter-imperial alliances by analyzing his partnerships with key figures-including George Jackson, Elias Dupuy, Thomas Hammond, and Richard Tolson. Furthermore, it situates Bowrey’s network within the broader geopolitical and commercial competition among English, Dutch, French, and Ottoman interests across major port cities. This study contributes to the understanding of alternative trade structures that coexisted with and challenged the dominance of formalized corporate enterprises. By reconstructing Bowrey’s business network, it sheds light on the resilience and adaptability of individual merchants who operated in a volatile global marketplace, revealing the agency of independent commercial actors in shaping the early modern trading world.

The increasing liberalization of international trade, particularly under the framework of the World Trade Organization (WTO), has raised significant tensions between economic expansion and environmental preservation. While WTO rules promote market access and reduce trade barriers. This is while biodiversity protection often requires restrictive measures which may appear to conflict with free trade principles. This tension is especially complex in the context of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) countries, where legal systems are influenced by both international obligations and Islamic principles of environmental stewardship. This study explores the challenges and prospects of harmonizing WTO trade norms with biodiversity conservation frameworks within selected OIC member states, including Pakistan, Indonesia, Malaysia, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia. Using a qualitative legal comparative methodology, the research analyzes WTO agreements (such as GATT, TBT, and SPS), biodiversity-related international treaties (e.g., CBD, CITES), and domestic environmental laws in OIC countries. The findings reveal a lack of integrated policy frameworks, limited environmental clauses in trade agreements, and the underutilization of Islamic legal principles in shaping sustainable trade policy. This study argues for the development of a harmonized legal approach that integrates biodiversity protection into trade law through institutional reforms, regional cooperation, and the inclusion of Islamic environmental ethics. Such harmonization is essential not only for sustainable development but also for enhancing the legal coherence and international credibility of OIC member states in addressing global environmental challenges.

Self-inflicted injury is a known risk factor for suicide. Previous studies have reported associations between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and self-inflicted injury; however, this association has not been widely studied among disaster-exposed populations. Among 50,386 enrollees in the World Trade Center Health Registry, a cohort of individuals exposed to the September 11, 2001, attacks in New York City (9/11), we examined longitudinal associations between probable 9/11-related PTSD and hospitalizations and emergency department (ED) visits for self-inflicted injuries that occurred between study enrollment (2003-2004) and 2015. Time-dependent Cox proportional hazard models were used to estimate hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for associations of time-varying probable 9/11-related PTSD and self-inflicted injury, adjusting for sociodemographic and pre-9/11 mental health symptoms. At study enrollment, 11.0% of enrollees had probable PTSD. Over a median follow-up period of 11.2 years, a total of 171 hospitalizations/ED visits for self-inflicted injury occurred among 146 enrollees. When comparing individuals with probable PTSD to those without probable PTSD, the multivariable-adjusted hazard ratio for self-inflicted injury was 2.45, 95% CI [1.63, 3.66]. Evidence of effect modification by age group was not observed. Our findings suggest that surveillance for PTSD among disaster-exposed populations may help identify individuals at high risk of self-inflicted injury who could benefit from targeted interventions.

Globally, soybeans are a vital agricultural resource, essential for food production and widely used as livestock feed and biofuel, making their market dynamics highly consequential. However, fluctuations in global soybean prices have led to significant uncertainty for major exporting countries and reshaped international trade patterns. This study examines the impact of world soybean price shocks on the United States (U.S.), Brazil, and Argentina, the worlds three leading soybean-exporting countries. Leveraging the Theory of Comparative Advantage and the Heckscher-Ohlin Model, it reviews the literature and analyzes Secondary Data from reports from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), as well as the World Trade Organization (WTO). In particular, the study investigates how fluctuations in soybean prices, combined with resource endowments, technological capacity, policy frameworks, and macroeconomic stability, impact the trade competitiveness of each country. The results indicate that the U.S. maintains strong competitiveness via technology and government support, Brazil gains from scale and low costs but faces infrastructure and currency risks, while Argentina is limited by domestic economic policies. Thus, price fluctuations reveal structural differences in comparative advantage, and sustainable agriculture and market diversification are crucial for long-term competitiveness.

The study of exchange rate volatility has become increasingly significant in the twenty-first century as economies integrate more deeply into the global financial system. India, with its rising share in world trade and investment flows, has experienced both opportunities and vulnerabilities associated with fluctuating currency values. This chapter presents a descriptive exploration of the patterns of exchange rate volatility in India from 2010 to 2024 and examines its broader macroeconomic linkages. Drawing on secondary data from the Reserve Bank of India, International Monetary Fund, and Ministry of Commerce, the chapter highlights how exchange rate fluctuations intersect with inflation, trade balance, foreign capital flows, and monetary policy responses. The analysis demonstrates that exchange rate movements not only influence external competitiveness but also affect domestic price stability and growth dynamics. By tracing these linkages over time, the chapter underscores the importance of data-driven policymaking for managing volatility in a globalised era. The descriptive approach offers clarity without reliance on complex econometric modelling, thereby providing an accessible yet rigorous contribution to understanding India’s evolving macroeconomic landscape. Keywords: Exchange Rate Volatility, Macroeconomic Linkages, India, Foreign Trade, Descriptive Analysis.

ABSTRACT Following the continuous deepening of Regional Trade Agreements (RTAs), a key question arises: How does the deepening of RTAs reshape the location‐selection logic of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)? Using panel data for 224 global economies from 2009 to 2022, this study systematically examines the impact of deep RTAs on FDI. The study finds that deep RTAs significantly promote FDI inflows through three mechanisms: optimizing the investment environment, reducing trade costs, and rule competition. Specifically, for every 1% increase in World Trade Organization (WTO) + provisions, WTO‐X provisions, and number of revisions, FDI increases by 0.468%, 0.786%, and 1.031%, respectively. The study reveals significant heterogeneous effects: Key provisions such as “visa and protection” and “institutional framework and transparency” promote FDI significantly, and the promoting effect of cooperation between South–South countries is the strongest. The extended analysis shows that an increase in the number of RTAs generally enhances FDI attractiveness; however, this promoting effect gradually decreases over time, and neighboring countries' RTAs cause an investment transfer effect. In addition, only when the deepening degree of RTAs is in the top 10% can it significantly increase FDI inflows, with an average increase of up to 25.9%. This study provides empirical support for the high‐quality promotion of regional economic and trade cooperation and offers policy references for signing and deepening the path design of RTAs.

Digital transformation in the world of trade has shifted to E-Commerce in order to increase market share and efficiency. Izra Fashion Store, which is engaged in selling hijab, currently still relies on social media for marketing and interaction with customers. Although this method is quite effective, a more structured solution is needed so that the sales process can run more optimally. The use of a marketplace platform such as Shopee is actually an option, but tight competition, the number of similar stores, and the difficulty of getting positive reviews in a short time make it difficult for small stores to build customer trust. Therefore, this study aims to build a website-based e-commerce equipped with a product recommendation feature using the Collaborative Filtering method. Researching it using quantitative methods with the help of a descriptive approach. Data was collected through data collection and analysis of user needs, which were then used to implement the Collaborative Filtering algorithm in the product recommendation system. This system is assisted by the PHP programming language and MySQL database. The research findings show that the system built is able to improve the customer shopping experience by providing product recommendations that are more in line with their preferences. In addition, this system also helps business owners manage product and transaction data in a more organized manner. Through the existence of this e-commerce platform.

The Journal retracts the article "Post-Traumatic Growth and Quality of Life among World Trade Center Health Registry Enrollees 16 Years after 9/11" [...].

The rapid growth of cross-border data services has raised concerns about privacy and national security. Taking Article 37 of China's Cybersecurity Lawwhich underpins Apple iCloud's operational requirements in Guizhouas a case study, this paper examines whether the policy violates Articles VI (Domestic Regulation), XVII (National Treatment), and XIV(a) (Public Order Exception) of the World Trade Organization's General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). Moving from general legal analysis to specific exception application, this study employs textual and case analysis to reveal that this requirement may place foreign service providers at a competitive disadvantage, violating national treatment obligations. Furthermore, it struggles to meet the necessity and minimal restriction criteria for the public procedure exception. Based on these findings, the paper proposes introducing risk-tiered procedures in data management, adopting alternative solutions that balance localization and security, and enhancing the certainty of WTO rules to achieve equilibrium between data sovereignty and the freedom of trade in services.

Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is associated with cardiometabolic risk among World Trade Center Health Program general responders, but current studies focus mainly on PM2.5 mass. We studied the associations between annual source-apportioned PM2.5 exposures, and self-reported diabetes or repeated blood glucose measurements among general responders enrolled between 2003-2019 (n=34,764), residing in Tri-state area. We used non-negative matrix factorization to attribute PM2.5 component to sources (i.e., biomass burning, oil combustion, metal industry, other industries, and motor vehicles). We used multivariable mixed-effect models to estimate the simultaneous associations of the source-apportioned PM2.5 exposures with the outcomes. We found (% change [95% confidence intervals]) an interquartile range increase in PM2.5 attributed to metal industry sources (0.42 μg/m3) to be associated with an 8.35% (1.39%,15.79%) higher risk of diabetes and a 1.31% (0.80%,1.82%) increase in glucose levels. Source-specific associations with glucose were modified by sex, showing larger associations with biomass burning (1.08%[0.32%,1.85%] per 0.44 μg/m3) and motor vehicle (1.34%[0.76%,1.93%] per 0.92 μg/m3) pollution among women, and larger associations with oil-combustion (0.68%[0.03%,1.34%] per 1.74 μg/m3) pollution among men. These findings can inform policies and interventions targeting emissions from these specific sources, particularly for general responders with a history of extreme air pollution exposures.

The 21st century has witnessed trade protection again, and the U.S. China trade war has been the best illustration of this. In this paper, a fresh look at the conflict is made in reference to the latest data until 2025. It relies on a qualitative case study which is based on trade statistics, policy papers and recent research. It is aimed at observing why protectionist regulations increased and how they transform international trade. The research concludes that tariffs are not only applied to stabilize trade but also to maintain technology superior, respond to supply chains and acquire political influence. Tariffs as well increase consumer prices, slack growth, damage export trade and undermine global trade regulations. The changes in the supply-chain, the industry policies implemented by the government and the weak World Trade Organization have evidence. This demonstrates why it is necessary to have improved cooperation and stronger nations. The paper concludes with the suggestions of how trade rules can be made more flexible.

Plastic waste trade has emerged as a pressing global concern at the intersection of trade liberalization and environmental protection. Despite increasing regulatory attention, the existing World Trade Organization (WTO) framework remains insufficiently equipped to address the environmental consequences of cross-border plastic waste flows. This study examines how WTO law and administrative governance mechanisms can be reformed to promote sustainable trade practices. Using a qualitative legal-analytical approach, the research reviews WTO agreements—particularly General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), and General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) alongside key environmental instruments such as the Basel Convention, to evaluate their coherence and limitations in governing plastic waste. The study further explores administrative pathways that national governments can employ to align domestic regulatory systems with WTO-consistent environmental objectives. Findings reveal that a fragmented regulatory landscape and weak administrative enforcement undermine effective plastic waste control. The paper concludes that integrating trade law reforms with administrative governance offers a viable route to balancing global trade commitments and environmental sustainability.

Abstract This study examines the economic ramifications of cola brand retaliation between India and the United States from 1977 to present, analyzing how beverage industry conflicts have influenced broader trade relations. Using mixed-methods research combining quantitative trade data analysis and qualitative policy assessment, this paper investigates the cascading effects of brand-specific trade disputes on bilateral economic relations. The research draws from World Trade Organization data, bilateral trade statistics, and industry reports spanning four decades. Results indicate that cola brand disputes have served as catalysts for broader protectionist measures, resulting in estimated bilateral trade losses of $2.3 billion over the study period. The analysis reveals three distinct phases of retaliation: the Coca-Cola expulsion era (1977-1993), the liberalization and re-entry period (1993-2010), and the contemporary regulatory warfare phase (2010-present). Findings suggest that brand-specific trade conflicts disproportionately impact consumer welfare and create precedents for non-tariff barriers in other sectors. The study concludes that cola brand retaliation exemplifies how symbolic trade actions can generate substantive economic consequences, recommending enhanced bilateral dialogue mechanisms and sector-specific dispute resolution frameworks to prevent future escalation. Keywords: trade retaliation, cola industry, Indo-US relations, non-tariff barriers, bilateral trade, protectionism