World Order Research Articles

Navigating uncertainty: Where are EU–US relations headed?

The transatlantic relationship is undergoing a period of critical recalibration, marked by the return of a more transactional US administration and a world order moving towards multipolarity. The return of Donald Trump to the helm of the White House with an ‘America First’ doctrine raises serious questions about US involvement in the transatlantic alliance. President Trump’s repeated claims that the EU was set up to ‘screw’ the US reflect both that his administration is unwilling to engage productively with the EU and that it distrusts multilateral forums, preferring bilateral, nation-to-nation contacts. This article seeks to bring clarity to the future US–EU relationship by identifying some of the points of contention and offering a perspective on how the transatlantic partnership can move forward constructively.

Rising powers and global cooperation: boundary work in infant formula standards under the WTO regime

Abstract There is a pressing need for global cooperation across a wide range of issues, and norms and practices to promote cooperation have proliferated. Yet our understanding of the effects of these cooperative infrastructures remains limited. We ask two questions: how have norms promoting cooperation shaped global standard-setting practices, and what are their implications for existing global power inequities? Existing research suggests that standard-setters respond to norms of global cooperation with boundary work to construct their legitimacy vis-à-vis new norms. Yet this research has paid scant attention to how boundary work is shaped by global power dynamics. Exploring the case of regulation in the infant formula sector, we argue that the norms for food safety standards established through the World Trade Organization brought an expansion of the practices and institutional infrastructures of global cooperation. However, broader global power dynamics, specifically neo-liberal approaches to scientific funding and the rise of China, shaped the degree to which cooperation reinforced or transformed existing power inequities within standard-setting. These findings have practical implications for policy-makers and standard-setters as they aim to establish enforceable, harmonized standards for transnational trade amid growing contention in the world order. Growing multipolarity may create possibilities for deeper forms of collaboration and multilateralism, if political will allows; however, more must be done to grapple with the concerns of countries in the global South if meaningful cooperation is the goal.

The future of the colonial system as assessed by experts of the Council on Foreign Relations during the Second World War

During World War II, the colonial issue was at the forefront of both the fight of the anti-Hitler coalition against the Axis powers and the inter-allied discussion of the prospects for the post-war world order. In this context, the perspectives of the U.S. experts affiliated with the Council on Foreign Relations deserve special attention. Having brought together government officials, bankers, industrialists, Wall Street lawyers, and Ivy League professors, the Council turned into a unique expert platform that exerted a significant influence not only on the course of public discussions about the future world order, but also on the foreign policy decision-making in the United States itself. This article identifies the specific features of experts’ perspectives on the prospects of the development and transformation of the colonial system after World War II. The first section profiles the Council’s members who actively participated in the discussion of these issues. The second section outlines the two main approaches of the Council’s experts to resolving the colonial issue, which involved either reforming the existing colonial system or significantly revising it. At the same time, as the author notes, all experts recognized that the positions of the European colonial powers would be inevitably weakened by the end of World War II and emphasized the need for the U.S. to play a more active role in the colonial issue, not least to counter a possible threat from the USSR. That said, some experts also voiced certain concerns that the inflow of American capital into the former European colonies would be fraught with economic risks that could exceed potential benefits. The author concludes that although most of the forecasts and recommendations considered were fairly general and vague, the Council in general was able to correctly predict the decolonization trend and during the war years reaffirmed its status as one of the most authoritative expert platforms on international relations.

U.S. approaches to economic development of Western Europe in the 1940s–1950s

During World War II, the United States gained superpower status, which implied the active participation of American diplomacy in the establishment of the post-war world order. In this context, one of the cornerstones of U.S. foreign policy was the strengthening of relations with the countries of Western Europe, which found themselves on the front lines of the nascent Soviet-American confrontation. This article attempts to place the evolution of American approaches to the economic development of Western Europe in the 1940s–1950s into a broader context of the U.S. plans to build a global liberal economic order. The study of the American post-war policy toward Europe is particularly relevant, as it can help to better comprehend the current logic of trade and economic relations between the United States and the European Union. The first section of the article outlines the main milestones in the history of post-war international trade and financial institutions: the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The author notes that during this period, the United States, taking advantage of the weakness and dependence of European countries, was able to effectively impose its vision of a global economic order on them. At the same time, the U.S. leadership soon realized that the active engagement of Western European countries in building a new economic order requires the establishment of regional organizations to promote free trade between them. To a great extent, the Marshall Plan was aimed at solving these problems, as discussed in detail in the second section of the article. The author emphasizes that the United States deliberately used economic assistance to stimulate consolidating trends in Western Europe as part of this plan. The third section of the paper thoroughly analyzes the motives behind the U.S. support for European integration. As the author shows, the United States was interested in creating a large regional market for American exports. Therefore, the United States supported the establishment of the European Communities (ECSC, EEC, Euratom). According to the U.S. plan, the liberalization of trade relations between Western European countries should subsequently be extrapolated to their trade with outside partners. While the first part of this plan was successfully implemented, problems arose with the second one: the foreign economic policy of the European Communities followed the protectionist course. Thus, the American leadership faced a new challenge, i.e., to achieve the liberalization of Western European trade with external partners.Keywords: USA, Western Europe, World War II, world economic order, Bretton Woods System, IMF, IBRD, GATT, Marshall Plan, OEEC, European integration, ECSC

Resilient partnership? EU perception and expectation from China

ABSTRACT The current decade has witnessed not only a series of crises weakening the post-world war neo-liberal world order built by the West, but also the continuous rising power of emerging countries, especially China. Supported by substantial first-hand empirical data, this research assesses how perceptions of the EU in China as well as expectations from China are affected after a series of crises, including the most recent ones, namely Brexit, COVID-19 pandemic and Russia–Ukraine war. It traces how China’s narrative of the relationship and relative power balance between the EU and China has evolved from 2020 to 2023, a period of turbulence testing the resilience of the EU. This analysis of traditional media as well as elite attitude provides the most up-to-date evidence of an increasingly confident China seeking a resilient partnership with the EU.

The New World Order and the Peculiarities of its Formation

The New World Order and the Peculiarities of its Formation

"There's Nothing Here But Volcanoes": Materiality and Design of Villains' Lairs in the James Bond Films

Villains’ lairs are a key ingredient in the Bondian formula for the James Bond films, yet in comparison with gadgets and weapons, the evolution of lairs has received little attention. The materiality and design of lairs has evolved partly in response to the changing nature of villains’ threats, and can be grouped into three main phases: "Cold War disruptors" in reinforced concrete subterranean spaces (Dr. No, You Only Live Twice); "New World Order survivalists" in fantastical lairs out of science fiction (The Spy Who Loved Me, Moonraker); and "Data manipulators" in a broader range of lairs including nomadic space (Skyfall) and corporate campus (Spectre). Unlike weapons and gadgetry, advances in lairs have generally lagged behind technological developments, rather than anticipate them. Lairs also function as an extension of villains themselves, and highlight underlying biases in the portrayal of villains. Lairs emphasise the material capital of villains; juxtaposed against the sexual capital of Bond, they facilitate the "sexual repositioning" of female characters allied to villains. Beyond practical reasons of concealing infrastructure, the subterranean setting of lairs plays into historical associations between evil and the underground. Early films strongly associated villains with Modernist design, reinforcing implicit links between "foreign-ness", "other-ness", and evil. In contrast, associating foreign allied characters with vernacular design reinforced the pretence of Empire, in which foreign allies are obedient to Bond and Britain. Insights into the role of villains’ lairs within James Bond films inform a wider understanding of how developments in materiality and design are portrayed on screen.

Ukraine in the Focus of the Confrontation between the American-Centric West and Russia

The world is experiencing crisis systemic transitional transformations. The asymmetry of existing strategic potentials and balances of power is increasing. Accordingly, the antagonistic variability of geopolitical approaches to reformatting the world order is expanding. The previous conflictogenicity has abruptly passed into the stage of a tough confrontation, fraught with a rapid increase in interdependent risks – military-strategic, geopolitical, geoeconomic. The axial lines of confrontation/rivalry between the USA and Russia, the USA and China, integrated Europe and Russia are becoming increasingly contrasting, on which acute conflict divisions and splits in the Middle East are superimposed. A dangerous military-political arc has formed around Russia through the targeted efforts of the united West led by the USA. The clearly expressed internationalization of the Ukrainian crisis has actually turned into a hybrid war of the West against Russia. The natural aspiration of Russia, like any country, to protect national and state interests, strengthen its spiritual and historical heritage, and expand its cultural and civilizational presence in the world is viewed with caution and suspicion by the US government and the countries that blindly orient themselves toward them, as a kind of marginal challenge to all of humanity and an encroachment on the value foundations of civilizational development.

Shaping a New World Order and BRICS+

Currently, the global system finds itself in a profound crisis, one that necessitates a fundamental reconfiguration and the establishment of a new world order as the only viable path forward. However, the journey toward this emerging order is protracted, arduous, marked by intense conflicts, and remains uncertain in many respects. Simultaneously, competition is escalating across various domains, including the contestation over principles governing coexistence and development. The article analyzes how the transformation processes of the world system can ultimately lead to the destruction of the existing American- led world order and the formation of a new world order based on alternative principles. The article considers the dynamics of such changes over the past decades through comparisons between Western nations and the BRICS countries, including graphical representations. It analyzes the growing role of the BRICS+ association in the formation of a new world order, which is undoubtedly an alternative to and a counterbalance to the United States and the collective Western bloc of nations. The article offers forecasts on some possible contours and principles of the world order. The growing role of new forms of relationships and alliances in the formation of a new world order is emphasized. In particular, it analyzes the potential contributions of BRICS+ to the world community, along with the aspects and directions that can become a model for shaping important principles and mechanisms central to a new world order.

Трансформация содержания понятия экономической безопасности на современном этапе развития

To date, a lot of material has been accumulated on the analysis of significant historical transformations, however, in our opinion, it is necessary to use new approaches to the analysis of future geo-economic and geopolitical challenges. Today, the world has entered an era of changing the old world order and its inherent institutions. This process takes place in conditions of acute contradictions and conflicts, giving rise to new challenges and threats, uncertainties and risks that force us to take a fresh look at the theoretical, institutional and managerial foundations of economic security. It is proposed to improve the system of economic security indicators based on their grouping according to the principle of novelty and relevance for the development of the national economy.

“Revolution and Diplomacy” as a Scientific Challenge

Drawing on the case studies of Russia, India, and China, this article seeks to examine the interplay between revolution and foreign policy. The author posits that revolution, as both a phenomenon and a process, aims to modernize national economies while augmenting a nation’s influence within the international system. For Russia, the February and October Revolutions marked its transition from the ‘periphery’ of the global system to a significant force in international affairs. Similarly, India and China pursued world power status along their own distinct trajectories. Nevertheless, the shared objective for these major nations – the “Elephant” and the “Dragon” – was to enhance their geopolitical standing in global politics, thereby ensuring the effective protection of their national interests. The article also underscores the importance of the ‘demonstration effect’ of the foreign policy revolution in Russia, India, and China, which inspired the political ‘awakening of the oppressed,’ representing the majority of humankind. This awakening is characterized by a growing assertion of political agency and the active defense of the ideas and principles underpinning a new, polycentric world order

Global structures of digital dependence and the rise of technopoles

ABSTRACT What are the global structures of digital dependency, and to what extent do the US and China dominate them? How can patterns of digital dependency be understood theoretically and measured empirically? These questions are crucial for both policymakers and academics. Our paper contributes to ongoing debates on the implications of increasing asymmetries and power concentrations driven by digital transformation and the rise of platforms. Building on insights from international relations (IR), international political economy (IPE), and scholarship on (infra)structural dependencies and the weaponisation of interdependence, this article draws on a comprehensive dataset from the Digital Dependence Index (DDI) to offer a framework for mapping and theorising the global structures of digital dependency. Across three dimensions – hardware, platforms and patents – we show that high and increasing levels of digital dependence have emerged, and that the US and China can be characterised as technopoles with significant technological autonomy and great potential to weaponise infrastructure and technologies. Such a structural perspective can be used to further explore and conceptualise the nexus between digital infrastructures, dependency and autonomy on the one hand, and the emergence of a new techno-geopolitical world order on the other.

China’s Global Rise: From Emerging Economy to World Power

With the expansion in Chinese economy as well as its increasing influence in the global world order, China adhered to a modern strategy that focuses on progressing its image peacefully in the world. This study examined China’s progressing behavior and all the strategies that were being used in this progress. For this purpose a qualitative coupled with quantitative study was being used. Interviews were conducted to find out the above mentioned scenarios about the China’s progress and it’s ruling strategies all over the world. Our results have clearly explained that major reason behind this phenomenon is the majority (80%) of Chinese community is highly educated along with embellished with the maximum will power of doing hard work. Similarly, 95% people are clearly explaining that our mind set and positive behavior towards progress is the only key of success. Moreover, as China’s economy vastly integrated into the global capitalist system, the country thrived to transform into a major global trade and economic power with its economy growing at an average annual Gross Domestic Product(GDP)growth rate of ten percent. As a result of this high growth rate, China is now the world’s second largest economy

The United Nations General Assembly in a Multipolar World Order: An Analysis of Roll Call Votes on UNGA Resolutions Addressing Russia's Military Actions in Ukraine

The United Nations General Assembly in a Multipolar World Order: An Analysis of Roll Call Votes on UNGA Resolutions Addressing Russia's Military Actions in Ukraine

COOPERATION WITHIN BRICS+ AS A NEW FORMAT FOR THE INTEGRATION PROCESS OF RAPIDLY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Introduction. In the context of global transformations driven by economic crises, shifts in international politics, and processes of deglobalisation, the emergence of a new multipolar world order has become one of the key trends. The intergovernmental alliance BRICS+, which includes countries such as Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Iran, and Ethiopia, plays a significant role in this process. BRICS+ is emerging as an alternative to traditional Western institutions, offering new approaches to economic cooperation, dedollarisation, and the creation of alternative payment systems. The objective of the study is to assess the impact of BRICS+ on the global economic architecture and to identify the current challenges associated with the expansion of this intergovernmental alliance. Materials and Methods. This study utilises data from open sources, including statistical reports, analytical materials from international organisations, and publications in academic journals. To analyse the economic indicators of BRICS+ member states, comparative analysis methods were employed, including the comparison of data on GDP, trade volumes, and energy resources. Initiatives by BRICS+ in the areas of dedollarisation and the creation of alternative payment systems were also examined. Particular attention was paid to the processes of the alliance's expansion and its impact on the global economic architecture. Results of the Study. The expansion of BRICS+ and its economic successes call into question the dominance of traditional Western institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF. However, internal disagreements among member states, such as tensions between China and India or between Saudi Arabia and Iran, may hinder the achievement of consensus on key issues. Additionally, differences in levels of economic development and political systems necessitate a more flexible approach to coordinating cooperation. Despite these challenges, BRICS+ possesses significant potential to strengthen its role in the global economy. Initiatives aimed at dedollarisation and the creation of alternative payment systems could represent an important step towards establishing a new financial architecture independent of Western institutions. Expanding cooperation with regional blocs such as the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), ASEAN, and MERCOSUR also opens up new opportunities for economic growth and integration. Discussion and Conclusion. BRICS+ is becoming a significant player on the global stage, offering an alternative to traditional Western institutions and contributing to the formation of a multipolar world order. The expansion of the alliance and its growing economic indicators demonstrate its increasing influence. However, for further success, member states need to strengthen coordination and find compromises on key issues. In the context of global economic instability, BRICS+ has the potential to become a platform for harmonious interaction among Global South countries and a counterbalance to the hegemony of Western powers.

Coexistence or Competition? China’s Evolution in Global Institutional Power

China’s engagement with global governance has evolved significantly since 1949, transitioning from outright rejection during its revolutionary isolation (1949–1971) to strategic engagement with key institutions such as the United Nations, IMF, and WTO (1971–2000), and more recently to the creation of parallel institutions like the AIIB and Belt and Road Initiative (2000–present). This paper traces these historical phases to analyze how China has navigated and reshaped global norms, balancing its integration into existing frameworks with efforts to build alternative governance structures. While Hegemonic Stability Theory and Power Transition Theory offer insights into China’s evolving strategy, neither fully encapsulates its pragmatic, adaptive approach. China’s domestic regulatory innovations, such as the Social Credit System and its promotion of cyber sovereignty, increasingly influence its global governance initiatives, reflecting a deliberate effort to export its governance models. Rather than fully integrating into or replacing the U.S.-led liberal order, China employs a dual-track strategy: engaging with global institutions where advantageous while promoting state-centric alternatives to liberal norms. This study argues that China’s historical trajectory underscores its pivotal role in shaping a multipolar world order, where competing governance frameworks coexist and challenge the dominance of Western-led institutions.

Historical Progression of Nepal’s Economic Interests in Foreign Policy and Economic Diplomacy

Economic diplomacy emphasizes the significance of global economic issues like trade, investment and finance, which has been employed in various forms within foreign policy directives of states. The subject is relevant as the Nepali government has been prescribing greater priority to economic diplomacy, seen within the several periodic plans that the paper has analyzed. The primary objective of the study is to identify the development of the idea through several foreign policy doctrines in Nepal’s history, as it progressed from a monarchy to a federal republic, ascertaining both the growing usage of the term and its relevance in policy mechanisms, and the evolving functions of state representatives. A qualitative method has been employed that utilizes an analytical approach when discerning the different dimensions of economic diplomacy in Nepal’s foreign policy. Focusing primarily on a rigorous review of literature, and also through content analysis of official state documents, the study has simultaneously assessed the perceptions of intellectuals and policy practitioners. This paper has found that historically economic interests have in many pivotal cases driven Nepal’s foreign policy agendas in its immediate neighborhood, post-unification, and also later when it expanded its presence in the globalized world order. However, in contemporary diplomatic practices, while Nepal has made several strides in carving economic diplomacy as a cornerstone of its foreign policy agenda, political transitions and inadequate incorporation of long-standing recommendations from stakeholders, coupled with lagging growth remain as significant challenges, which require further contemplation.

The Rebirth of the Global South: Geopolitics, Imageries and Developmental Realities

The term ‘Global South’ has seen a resurgence in recent years, evolving from a synonym for the ‘Third World’ to a geo-historical concept representing low- and middle-income countries and emerging powers. Despite growing prominence in global policy debates, its meaning remains contested. In this introductory article to the special issue, we first discuss five distinct interpretations identified in the literature. We emphasize that Global South is characterized by internal diversity, evolving roles, and shifting alliances, while remaining anchored in the broader struggles for global justice and systemic transformation that give the concept its political meaning. The second part analyses the role of the Global South in reshaping global governance as countries within this grouping navigate strategic balancing between major powers, influencing emerging multipolar dynamics. Through a dialogue with the articles in the special issue we illustrate how the role of the Global South moves far beyond being critical of the west and a liberal world order, but rather both challenge and reaffirm some of the norms underpinning such an order. The third part discusses how South-South Cooperation (SSC) emerges as a vehicle for reconfiguring global cooperation, driven by strategic interests and diverse forms of engagement. The articles in this special issues provide examples of the multifaceted nature of this engagement. Overall, this special issue provides insights into how the Global South’s complexities intersect with geopolitical shifts, challenging traditional norms and offering new frameworks for global governance transformation.

Теоретические основы и логика развития концепции глобального управления Китая

The Chinese concept of global governance is a product of a prolonged evolution of national perceptions re-garding the world order. This article examines its theoretical foundations and historical prerequisites that un-derpin the Chinese approach to international relations, as well as the key philosophical principles and ideas that shape it. In particular, the influence of significant strands of Chinese thought, such as Confucianism, the idea of “Tianxia” (the universe is perceived as a unified whole governed by the Chinese emperor, and in a con-temporary context, as the global community), and the theory of “common values of mankind” is analyzed. The author seeks to understand how these philosophical concepts impact the practical model of global governance proposed by China. In addition to theoretical aspects, the article also addresses the practical role of the Middle Kingdom within existing international organizations and mechanisms of foreign policy interaction.

Diplomatic training and Sovereign Foreign Policy: Experience from Asia

This article analyzes the relationship between diplomatic training and the international positioning of countries, using the example of the Asian macro-region. The paper is a case study focusing on the experiences of China, Vietnam, the Republic of Korea, Indonesia, and India. Through detailed country analyses, the paper aims to examine how the quality of diplomatic training correlates with states’ aspirations for autonomy and sovereignty in the emerging polycentric world order. The methodological framework of the study incorporates a multi-paradigm approach, integrating a neorealist perspective of the state as the central actor in international relations and a constructivist analysis of the impact of social practices on diplomatic strategy. An examination of the diplomatic training systems of the countries reveals a complex relationship with their foreign policy and personnel policies. The study finds a non-causal correlation between the foreign policy positioning of countries and their diplomatic training models. A state’s desire to increase its autonomy depends to a greater extent on its role and position in world politics in the space-time continuum. Thus, based on historical experience, among the cases studied, the desire for autonomy is stronger in those states where the colonial trauma is more acute. “Sovereignty” can take different forms depending on the resources available to a state. At the same time, quality diplomatic training ensures the possibility of implementing the sovereign line and provides the necessary human and ideological tools for this purpose.