World Meteorological Organization Research Articles

Bio-fumigants as grain protectants in storage-A review

Agriculture is a global lifeline, especially in developing nations like India, where over 70% of the population relies on it. Protecting food grains from insect pests during post-harvest storage is crucial, particularly in regions lacking advanced storage technologies, leading to significant losses. Fumigation is still a key strategy for safeguarding stored grains. Methyl bromide (MBr) and aluminium phosphide (AlP) are the widely used chemical fumigants. Phosphine is used to a greater extent today, but there are frequent reports that several storage pests have developed resistance to this fumigant. The United Nations World Meteorological Organization declared methyl bromide as an ozone-depleting chemical in 1995, and hence, most of the developed countries have phased out its use. Therefore, there is an urgent requirement to develop alternatives having a possible replacement for these fumigants. Biofumigants are organic compounds derived from various plant sources, including essential oils, botanical powders, and plant residues or from microbial volatiles. They release volatile compounds toxic to pests but safe for humans and the environment, offering a sustainable pest management approach. Plants such as mustard and radish produce glucosinolates that release isothiocyanates, known for their pesticidal properties. Essential oils from eucalyptus, clove, and mint and volatiles from certain fungi and bacteria also exhibit fumigant properties. Biofumigants disrupt insect physiological and biochemical processes, leading to mortality or reduced reproduction. Studies showed their efficacy against pests like red flour beetle, lesser grain borer, and rice weevil. Unlike chemical fumigants, biofumigants do not leave harmful residues, preserving grain quality and aligning with organic farming practices. Shifting to biofumigants offers a promising, eco-friendly, and effective alternative for post-harvest pest management, ensuring food safety and sustainability

Assessment of Formaldehyde’s Impact on Indoor Environments and Human Health via the Integration of Satellite Tropospheric Total Columns and Outdoor Ground Sensors

Formaldehyde (HCHO) is harmful to human health and an adequate assessment of its concentrations, both in outdoor and indoor environments, is necessary in the context of sustainable policies designed to mitigate health risks. In this research, ground indoor and outdoor HCHO measurements are integrated with the analysis of tropospheric total columns obtained by satellite surveys to assess the concentrations of HCHO in a number of environments, exploiting the proximity of a World Meteorological Organization—Global Atmosphere Watch (WMO/GAW) observation site in Calabria, Southern Italy to a National Institute for Insurance against Accidents at Work (INAIL) department in the municipality of Lamezia Terme. The meteorological parameters used by the WMO station are also used to provide additional data and test new correlations. Using statistical significance tests, this study demonstrates the presence of a correlation between indoor and outdoor HCHO concentrations, thus showing that an exchange between indoor and outdoor formaldehyde does occur. Rooms located in the local INAIL building where indoor measurements took place also demonstrate degrees of susceptibility to HCHO exposure, which are correlated with the orientation of prevailing wind corridors in the area. The new findings constitute an unprecedented characterization of HCHO hazards in Calabria and provide regulators with new tools with which to mitigate formaldehyde-related risks.

World Meteorological Organization (WMO)-Accredited Infrastructure to Support Operational Climate Prediction

Abstract The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) system, with an intergovernmental mandate for coordinating the generation and exchange of weather, climate, and water information across its members. WMO has played a vital role in coordinating production and dissemination of weather forecasts from short to medium range whereby global weather forecasts from large operational centers are made available to all WMO members to serve needs of stakeholders at the local level. In recent decades, there has also been an increasing demand for similar forecasts on longer lead times that include prediction on subseasonal, seasonal, and annual to decadal leads. To address the increasing requirements for forecast services by members, WMO has been actively accrediting and coordinating the essential forecast infrastructure that includes provision of forecasts from WMO designated Global Producing Centers and collection of forecasts by Lead Centers to facilitate the dissemination of information and products to WMO members and relevant nongovernmental organizations. Although the basic ingredients of the infrastructure are now in place, the uptake of the forecast information has been suboptimal. To engage the community in developing solutions to enhance the utilization of available information, this paper summarizes the WMO infrastructure for long-range forecasts, particularly for seasonal time scale, and follows with a discussion of current issues that are hindering their uptake. Finally, a set of proposals to advance the utilization of the available information from the WMO long-lead forecast infrastructure are discussed.

Tropopause Height Inferred from Twilight Photometry

Abstract The tropopause height has been measured by sounding balloons for more than 70 years. More recently, lidar has found the tropopause height by detecting aerosols or subvisible cirrus that accumulate at the tropopause. Here we present a twilight photometer technique to detect the tropopause height with results close to the traditional World Meteorological Organization (WMO) method from sounding balloon measurements. The twilight intensity (I), although radiometrically uncalibrated, can be normalized by the derivative of log(I) with respect to time (t), or I’(t)/I(t), to infer stratospheric aerosol layer properties using Earth’s shadow to orderly shield the sunlight below different altitudes. A conventional twilight photometer detects the twilight glow from atmospheric aerosol scattering with a photodiode detector equipped with a near-infrared optical filter. We have replaced the photodiode and optical filter with a Light-Emitting Diode (LED) that functions as a wavelength-dependent photodiode with a narrow-band response near 1050 nm. We found that the layer height from twilight photometer observations is highly correlated with the tropopause height. 76 twilight tropopause heights during the first six months of 2024 at Geronimo Creek Atmospheric Monitoring Station (GCAMS) in Central Texas agree well with those reported by sounding balloons launched from Corpus Christi, Texas, 207 km from GCAMS (standard deviation of 265 m). The twilight method is inexpensive, easily implemented, and has potential for use at remote sites with solar power and developing countries that lack resources for sounding balloons. It can also provide a learning tool for students of meteorology and the atmospheric sciences.

Exploring the role of national weather services in climate change knowledge and communication: an international survey

This study investigates the roles, perspectives, and communication strategies of National Meteorological Services (NMS) concerning climate monitoring, climate change projections, and the attribution of meteorological phenomena to climate variations. Using a survey distributed to 131 of the 193 National Meteorological Services affiliated with the World Meteorological Organization, we explore how these entities contribute to and communicate about the science of climate change. The survey targeted their involvement in observing and recording climate data, making climate projections, attributing specific weather events to climate change, and their methods of communicating these issues to the public and government officials. Responses were received from 44 countries, reflecting diverse levels of economic development and capabilities in handling, and disseminating complex climate information. The results show a strong engagement in traditional meteorological tasks, with a varied approach to the scientific study of climate change effects and public communication strategies. This study highlights the critical role of NMS in climate change research and underscores the challenges they face in effectively communicating complex climate information, which is crucial for public understanding and policymaking.

A novel method for detecting tropopause structures based on the bi-Gaussian function

Abstract. The tropopause is an important transition layer and can be a diagnostic of upper-tropospheric and lower-stratospheric structures, exhibiting unique atmospheric thermal and dynamic characteristics. A comprehensive understanding of the evolution of fine tropopause structures is necessary and primary for the further study of complex multi-scale atmospheric physical–chemical coupling processes in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. A novel method utilizing the bi-Gaussian function is capable of identifying the characteristic parameters of vertical tropopause structures and providing information on double-tropopause (DT) structures. The new method improves the definition of the cold-point tropopause and detects one (or two) of the most significant local cold points by fitting the temperature profiles to the bi-Gaussian function, which defines the point(s) as the tropopause height(s). The bi-Gaussian function exhibits excellent potential for explicating the variation trends of temperature profiles. The results of the bi-Gaussian method and lapse rate tropopause, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization, are compared in detail for different cases. Results indicate that the bi-Gaussian method is able to more stably and obviously identify the spatial and temporal distribution characteristics of the thermal tropopauses, even in the presence of multiple temperature inversion layers at higher elevations. Moreover, 5 years of historical radiosonde data from China (from 2012 to 2016) revealed that the occurrence frequency and thickness of the DT, as well as the single-tropopause height and the first and second DT heights, displayed significant meridional monotonic variations. The occurrence frequency (thickness) of the DT increased from 1.07 % (1.96 km) to 47.19 % (5.42 km) in the latitude range of 16–50° N. The meridional gradients of tropopause height were relatively large in the latitude range of 30–40° N, essentially corresponding to the climatological locations of the subtropical jet and the Tibetan Plateau.

Decadal prediction centers prepare for a major volcanic eruption

Abstract The World Meteorological Organization’s Lead Centre for Annual-to-Decadal Climate prediction issues operational forecasts annually as guidance for regional climate centers, climate outlook forums and national meteorological and hydrological services. The occurrence of a large volcanic eruption such as that of Mount Pinatubo in 1991, however, would invalidate these forecasts and prompt producers to modify their predictions. To assist and prepare decadal prediction centers for this eventuality, the Volcanic Response activities under the World Climate Research Programme’s Stratosphere-troposphere Processes And their Role in Climate (SPARC) and the Decadal Climate Prediction Project (DCPP) organized a community exercise to respond to a hypothetical large eruption occurring in April 2022. As part of this exercise, the Easy Volcanic Aerosol forcing generator was used to provide stratospheric sulfate aerosol optical properties customized to the configurations of individual decadal prediction models. Participating centers then reran forecasts for 2022-2026 from their original initialization dates, and in most cases also from just before the eruption at the beginning of April 2022, according to two candidate response protocols. This article describes various aspects of this SPARC/DCPP Volcanic Response Readiness Exercise (VolRes-RE), including the hypothesized volcanic event, the modified forecasts under the two protocols from the eight contributing centers, the lessons learned during the coordination and execution of this exercise, and the recommendations to the decadal prediction community for the response to an actual eruption.

Lisbon Urban Climate: Statistical Analysis/Approach for Urban Heat Island Effect Based on a Pioneering Urban Meteorological Network

The urban heat island (UHI) effect is a widely recognized phenomenon consisting of heat accumulation by dense urban construction and human activities, resulting in higher temperatures across urban areas compared to their surroundings. This article aims to quantify the UHI effect on several areas throughout the city of Lisbon, Portugal, with the main goal of validating, evaluating, and reinforcing urban climate adaptation and resilience strategies proposed in the recent scientific literature. A set of nine quality-controlled weather stations from the “Lisboa Aberta” network that are compliant with the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) standards and installation requirements were used to characterize Lisbon’s UHI, in comparison to a reference weather station from the Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera (IPMA), located at Lisbon Airport. By applying a principal component analysis (PCA) in an innovative way to 10 urban indexes, it is shown that the thermal inertia in Lisbon’s urban areas is positively correlated with the UHI intensity and urban density, regardless of the daily heating/cooling cycle. Furthermore, the results show that land use also has an impact on the UHI effect, with continuous, vertical building areas showing the greatest deviations in comparison to the reference, averaging +1.8 °C. Contrastingly, horizontal building areas reveal an average deviation of +1.3 °C, with sparse, discontinuously built areas representing an average UHI effect of +0.2 °C. Finally, through a climatope analysis, it is determined that, across Lisbon, high-density urban areas and ventilation corridors are responsible for inducing average UHI effects of +1.7 °C and +0.2 °C, respectively.

Educational aspect in the legal regulation of scientific research in the constituent instruments of UN Specialized Agencies

The aim of the article is to explore how the integration of educational aspects into the legal regulation of scientific research is addressed within the constituent instruments of UN specialized agencies. It seeks to show how education serves as a bridge between scientific advancements and their practical applications, making research more accessible to society. The article identifies a gap in systematic scholarly inquiry into international legal cooperation on scientific research, highlighting the need for a more comprehensive analysis. The methodology employed includes comparative and systematic analysis of relevant international legal documents, focusing on how scientific activity is reflected in the statutory frameworks of various UN organizations. The article applies methods of analysis and synthesis, as well as structural, formal-legal, and hermeneutic approaches, utilizing both deduction and induction. The most relevant results indicate that scientific activity is consistently regulated within key treaties, especially in the UNESCO Constitution and IAEA Statute. The article also identifies references to science and scientific activity in the statutes of other organizations, including the World Meteorological Organization, WHO, FAO, and the International Maritime Organization, showing the wide regulatory framework governing scientific research across different sectors.

Fiducial Reference Measurement for Greenhouse Gases (FRM4GHG)

The Total Carbon Column Observing Network (TCCON) and the Infrared Working Group of the Network for the Detection of Atmospheric Composition Change (NDACC-IRWG) are two ground-based networks that provide the retrieved concentrations of up to 30 atmospheric trace gases, using solar absorption spectrometry. Both networks provide reference measurements for the validation of satellites and models. TCCON concentrates on long-lived greenhouse gases (GHGs) for carbon cycle studies and validation. The number of sites is limited, and the geographical coverage is uneven, covering mainly Europe and the USA. A better distribution of stations is desired to improve the representativeness of the data for various atmospheric conditions and surface conditions and to cover a large latitudinal distribution. The two successive Fiducial Reference Measurements for Greenhouse Gases European Space Agency projects (FRM4GHG and FRM4GHG2) aim at the assessment of several low-cost portable instruments for precise measurements of GHGs to complement the existing ground-based sites. Several types of low spectral resolution Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometers manufactured by Bruker, namely an EM27/SUN, a Vertex70, a fiber-coupled IRCube, and a Laser Heterodyne spectro-Radiometer (LHR) developed by UK Rutherford Appleton Laboratory are the participating instruments to achieve the Fiducial Reference Measurements (FRMs) status. Intensive side-by-side measurements were performed using all four instruments next to the Bruker IFS 125HR high spectral resolution FTIR, performing measurements in the NIR (TCCON configuration) and MIR (NDACC configuration) spectral range. The remote sensing measurements were complemented by AirCore launches, which provided in situ vertical profiles of target gases traceable to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) reference scale. The results of the intercomparisons are shown and discussed. Except for the EM27/SUN, all other instruments, including the reference TCCON spectrometer, needed modifications during the campaign period. The EM27/SUN and the Vertex70 provided stable and precise measurements of the target gases during the campaign with quantified small biases. As part of the FRM4GHG project, one EM27/SUN is now used as a travel standard for the verification of column-integrated GHG measurements. The extension of the Vertex70 to the MIR provides the opportunity to retrieve additional concentrations of N2O, CH4, HCHO, and OCS. These MIR data products are comparable to the retrieval results from the high-resolution IFS 125HR spectrometer as operated by the NDACC. Our studies show the potential for such types of spectrometers to be used as a travel standard for the MIR species. An enclosure system with a compact solar tracker and meteorological station has been developed to house the low spectral resolution portable FTIR systems for performing solar absorption measurements. This helps the spectrometers to be mobile and enables autonomous operation, which will help to complement the TCCON and NDACC networks by extending the observational capabilities at new sites for the observation of GHGs and additional air quality gases. The development of the retrieval software allows comparable processing of the Vertex70 type of spectra as the EM27/SUN ones, therefore bringing them under the umbrella of the COllaborative Carbon Column Observing Network (COCCON). A self-assessment following the CEOS-FRM Maturity Matrix shows that the COCCON is able to provide GHG data products of FRM quality and can be used for either short-term campaigns or long-term measurements to complement the high-resolution FTIR networks.

Modelling drought in South Africa: meteorological insights and predictive parameters

South Africa has grappled with recurring drought scenarios for over two decades, leading to substantial economic losses. Droughts in the Western Cape between 2015 and 2018, especially in Cape Town was declared a national disaster, resulting in the strict water rationing and the “day zero” effect. This study presents a set of simulations for predicting drought over South Africa using Artificial Neural Network (ANN), using Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) as the drought indicator in line with the recommendations of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Furthermore, different meteorological variables and an aerosol parameter were used to develop the drought set in four distinct locations in South Africa for a 21-year period. That data used include relative humidity (rh), temperature (tp), soil wetness (sw), evapotranspiration (et), evaporation (ev) sea surface temperature (st), and aerosol optical depth (aa). The obtained R2 values for SPI3 ranged from 0.49 to 0.84 and from 0.22 to 0.84 for SPI6 at Spring Bok, Umtata 0.83 to 0.95 for SPI3, and 0.61 to 0.87 for SPI6; Cape Town displayed R2 values from 0.78 to 0.94 for SPI3 and 0.57 to 0.95 for SPI6, while Upington had 0.77–0.95 for SPI3, and 0.78–0.92 for SPI6. These findings underscore the significance of evapotranspiration (et) as a pivotal parameter in drought simulation. Additionally, the predictive accuracy of these parameter combinations varied distinctly across different locations, even for the same set of parameters. This implies that there is no single universal scheme for drought prediction. Hence, the results are important for simulating future drought scenarios at different parts of South Africa. Finally, this study shows that ANN is an effective tool that can be utilized for drought studies and simulations.

Exploring patterns of surface urban heat island intensity: a comparative analysis of three Greek urban areas

One of the most pressing issues of our time is the destabilization of the global climate as a result of rapid urbanization. In Europe, according to United Nations reports, almost 73% of the population lives in cities and this percentage is expected to rise to 85% by 2050 (United Nations and Department of Economic and Social Affairs, ‘World Urbanization Prospects 2018 Highlights’, 2018). This observed urban development and its trends pose significant challenges to our urban environments, therefore it is critical to improve our understanding and assess its impact by measuring and analyzing its patterns. This study presents a comprehensive five-year analysis of microclimatic parameters that can contribute to this analysis, such as land surface temperature (LST) and surface urban heat island (SUHI) intensity, using remotely sensed data over three cities in Greece. Specifically, the selected cities are the city of Thessaloniki, which is the second largest city situated in the northern part of Greece, the city of Larissa on the mainland, and finally the city of Tripoli in the Peloponnese peninsula in southern Greece. Each city represents urban areas with different physical and urban characteristics. For this purpose, the vegetation index-based technique for LST extraction was applied within the Google Earth Engine (GEE) platform. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) calculations were also performed over a five-year period. The results highlighted the spatio-temporal variations and trends that occur in the studied urban areas, providing valuable insights into the annual patterns of the SUHI phenomenon in different geographical contexts within Greece. This is particularly relevant in countries like Greece, where the density of World Meteorological Organization (WMO) stations providing reliable temperature data is low, usually limited to one per city. Consequently, LST derived from satellite data can provide more accurate intra-urban results of the SUHI effect, demonstrating the value of remotely sensed data as a cost effective and supportive tool for decision-making in environmental and urban planning policies.

Calibration and evaluation of various reference evapotranspiration estimation methods in a humid subtropical climate: A case study in Samsun Province, Türkiye

Reference evapotranspiration is crucial for estimating plant water needs and managing resources. Simplifying the Penman-Monteith model by reducing input parameters and local calibration can enhance efficiency and reliability. In this study, three empirical formulas—Hargreaves and Samani (HS, 1985), Priestley and Taylor (PT, 1972), and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO, 1966)—representing temperature-, solar radiation-, and mass-transfer-based approaches, respectively, were evaluated. To achieve this objective, meteorological data from five synoptic stations situated in the Samsun province in the Black Sea region of Türkiye, were utilized. Three methods, namely the traditional method, regression analysis, and genetic algorithm, were employed to estimate the local calibration coefficients of empirical equations based on the Penman-Monteith 56 equation. Finally, the outcomes were evaluated based on four criteria: root-mean-square error, coefficient of determination, mean bias error, and percentage error of estimate. The results of empirical formulas both before and after calibration were analyzed. Prior to calibration, HS and PT exhibited greater accuracy for the case study. This accuracy trend was also observed in the calibrated results. Additionally, among the three employed calibration methods, regression analysis and traditional methods demonstrated a higher level of accuracy.

Changes in urban residential and agricultural sources induce a decrease in PM10 levels in cold clean area: A thirteen-year monitoring at the Longfengshan WMO/GAW regional background station in Northeast China

Atmospheric background monitoring provides insights into the long-term changes in atmospheric composition resulting from human activities on both global and regional scales. It is important to understand the local characteristics of key air pollutants to evaluate and manage air quality control policies effectively. This study analyzed 13 years of continuous data of PM10 (particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter ≤10 μm) concentration from the only atmospheric background station in Northeastern China, the Longfengshan (LFS) World Meteorological Organization (WMO)/Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) regional station. The results revealed a significant decrease of 58.02% in PM10 concentrations in the LFS from 2007 to 2019, which was primarily influenced by transport from Changchun and Harbin. Over periods exceeding eight months, the correlation between PM10 levels at the LFS atmospheric background station and those in Changchun and Harbin became more pronounced. The observed decline in PM10 concentrations at the LFS atmospheric background station was largely attributed to reduced emissions from urban residential and agricultural sources. Emissions of carbon monoxide and ammonia from these sources, along with temperature and relative humidity (RH), significantly affected the PM10 concentrations. Using machine learning (ML) methods and PM10 data from the LFS atmospheric background station, this study effectively predicted PM10 concentrations in neighboring cities, demonstrating that the LFS atmospheric background station can effectively assess the trend of PM10 changes in Northeast China. This study quantified the influence of urban areas on atmospheric background stations, highlighting the effectiveness of existing environmental policies, and offering a reference for similar studies and forecasts in other regions.

Reflection of Explicitation in Scientific Translation: Neural Machine Translation vs. Human Post-Editing

The present paper reports on the findings of an empirical comparative study on the extent to which explicitation is employed in the translation of a scientific text as conducted by Google Neural Machine Translation (GNMT) vs its post-edited (PE) version. A recent report released in English by the World Meteorological Organization in September 2023 was selected as the source text for the present study. The purpose of the study is to reveal how domain-specific acronyms and technical terms are lexically expanded (explicitated) in a GNMT output compared to its post-edited (PE) version as performed by a team of professional translators at a translation service provider in Amman-Jordan. Explicitation in translation can be obligatory or optional. The type of explicitation investigated in the present study is optional, pragmatic explicitation. The results show that GNMT has its limitations in dealing with scientific terms and acronyms in translating scientific texts from English into Arabic. In contrast, human post-editing explicitated domain-specific terms and acronyms producing a text with a higher level of readability and naturalness for domain expert readers and non-expert readers.

Changes in evaporation patterns and their impact on Climatic Water Balance and river discharges in central Poland, 1961–2020

This study investigates the changes in precipitation and evaporation patterns and their impact on Climatic Water Balance and river discharges in central Poland from 1961 to 2020. The analysis focuses on two “normal” periods, 1961–1990 and 1991–2020 (according to the World Meteorological Organization). Bartlett’s test and the Kruskal–Wallis rank sum test were used to assess the homogeneity of variances and compare distributions of analyzed variables over two “normal” periods. The probability density functions were estimated using a kernel density estimator with a Gaussian kernel function. Significant findings indicate alterations in evaporation rates and shifts in water balance dynamics. Mean evaporation increased from 530.8 to 637.9 mm, leading to a notable decrease in the mean Climatic Water Balance from 1.1 to − 107.5 mm (in the periods 1961–1990 and 1991–2020, respectively). Additionally, rivers showed reduced mean annual discharges (from 4.28 to 3.01 m3·s−1 and 1.25 to 0.87 m3·s−1, for the Zgłowiączka and Skrwa Lewa rivers, respectively). These climatic changes in central Poland have substantial implications for regional water resources, especially in spring and summer and particularly in agricultural areas, potentially exacerbating drought conditions and impacting agricultural productivity mainly in the warm half-year.

Long-Term Wind and Air Temperature Patterns in the Southeastern Region of Iran through Model Simulation and Ground Observations

Dust storms are one of the important natural hazards that affect the lives of inhabitants all around the world, especially in North Africa and the Middle East. In this study, wind speed, wind direction, and air temperature patterns are investigated in one of the dustiest cities in Sistan Basin, Zahedan City, located in southeast Iran, over a 17-year period (2004–2020) using a WRF model and ground observation data. The city is located near a dust source and is mostly affected by local dust storms. The World Meteorology Organization (WMO) dust-related codes show that the city was affected by local dust, with 52 percent of the total dust events occurring during the period (2004–2021). The city’s weather station reported that 17.5% and 43% were the minimum and maximum dusty days, respectively, during 2004–2021. The summer and July were considered the dustiest season and month in the city. Since air temperature, wind speed, and wind direction are important factors in dust rising and propagation, these meteorological factors were simulated using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model for the Zahedan weather station. The WRF model’s output was found to be highly correlated with the station data; however, the WRF simulation mostly overestimated when compared with station data during the study period (2004–2020). The model had a reasonable performance in wind class frequency distribution at the station, demonstrating that 42.6% of the wind was between 0.5 and 2, which is in good agreement with the station data (42% in the range of 0.5–2). So, the WRF model effectively simulated the wind class frequency distribution and the wind direction at Zahedan station, despite overestimating the wind speed as well as minimum, maximum, and average air temperatures during the 17-year period.

Coproduction of Integrated Weather and Climate Services to Support Net-Zero Energy Transitions

Abstract Weather and climate services (W&CS) are key to supporting the transition to net-zero emissions in the energy sector. These services are utilized to increase energy system resilience, enhance renewable energy deployment, and enable the uptake of energy-efficiency measures and innovations. As energy systems become increasingly dependent on and affected by weather and climatic conditions, integrating weather and climate data into energy management systems is essential. This paper addresses the gap in comprehensive guidance for developing integrated W&CS to support net-zero energy transitions, drawing upon a report by the World Meteorological Organization’s Services Commission Study Group on Integrated Energy Services. We present a framework for coproduction of W&CS, exploring how the uptake of W&CS for energy transitions can be enabled through the evaluation of socioeconomic benefits, harnessing business models, identification of key policies, and capacity development measures. To support the uptake of W&CS for net-zero energy transitions, we recommend a deeper understanding of user needs and requirements; continuous advancements in the science and technology of W&CS; effective integration of weather and climate data within energy conversion models; improved accessibility and sharing of meteorological and, especially, energy data; promotion of coproduction approaches; exploration of novel applications of W&CS in the energy sector; refinement of business models for sustainable W&CS delivery; execution of capacity-building activities; and enhanced communication among stakeholders and strengthened collaborative efforts. These steps are crucial for realizing the full potential of W&CS in driving the energy sector toward a sustainable, net-zero future.

Bringing the Value Chain for High-Impact Weather Warnings into the Classroom

Abstract University students can learn about weather warnings and contribute to a database for the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) project on value chain approaches to evaluate the end-to-end warning chain. The project offers students a way to understand how information about high-impact weather is created, shared, and used within a complete warning system for a selected event. Their contributions are intended to inform researchers and practitioners on what has and what has not worked well in the warning process. The students use a structured questionnaire designed to collect information on observations, forecasting, hazards, impacts, warning communications, and responses.

Severe Weather Warnings for Sofia, Bulgaria: May – September 2010–2019

Severe weather monitoring and forecasting is the prime task of the National Meteorological Services according to World Meteorological Organization Guidelines (WMO). Since 2009 Bulgarian National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology (NIMH) issues 48 h ahead severe weather warnings as a contribution to the European warning system (METEOALARM). A total of 243 days with warnings for heat, thunderstorms and intense rain were issued for the period May-September 2010–2019. The monthly maximum for heat is 42 days in July, for thunderstorms it is 26 days in June, and for intense rain it is 27 days in June. Objective circulation classification is conducted which shows that the majority of heat warnings are associated with Anticyclonic and West flow circulation types. About 40% of thunderstorm warnings are of Cyclone type followed by 28.6% of Cyclonic Directional types. For rain warnings, most of the days are with Cyclone type (46.2%) and Cyclonic Directional types (27.5%). Analysis of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) derived Integrated Water Vapour (IWV), from the Bulgarian station in Sofia, shows consistently higher values for the days with METEOALARM warnings for heat, thunderstorm and rain.