Work Disability Research Articles (Page 1)

Knee pain is common in the general population, increasingly so with age. It causes substantial disability which can lead to premature exit from the workforce. Current epidemiological data on knee pain prevalence in working-age populations are limited, particularly concerning the interplay of occupational, psychosocial, and cultural factors. To address this, in a large group of workers, we examined the prevalence of knee pain longitudinally, its relationship with pain at other sites and personal and occupational risk factors for pain at follow-up. Data came from the CUPID study, a cohort study including people aged 20-59years at work from 18 countries in broadly three types of occupations: office work, nurses and manual workers. Baseline data were collected on knee pain, pain at other anatomical sites, occupational characteristics and psychosocial aspects of work. Follow-up information about knee pain was obtained approximately a year later. Descriptive statistics were used to describe knee pain prevalence and characteristics as well as persistence. Poisson regression was used to explore baseline factors in relation to knee pain, and disabling knee pain, at follow-up. In total 9,161 workers provided baseline and follow-up data, amongst whom 28% reported knee pain in the past year and 21% knee pain in the past month at baseline. 79% of workers with knee pain reported disability. The prevalence increased with age and was higher among women. Only 8% of workers with knee pain had single-site pain. There was wide variation in the prevalence rates reported amongst workers even doing broadly similar work. Psychosocial and occupational work demands predicted knee pain at follow-up, as did poorer mental health and somatisation but the highest effect size was found amongst people reporting a high number of painful sites at baseline (PRR: 2.06,95%CI: 1.78-2.39). Knee pain is prevalent in the workforce, even at younger ages. It is commonly persistent and disabling. Given its link with work disability, the emphasis needs to be on prevention and both mechanical and psychosocial exposures at work are implicated. However, like low back pain, other factors appear to be important, particularly pain at other sites. Clinical trial number: not applicable.

ObjectiveTo identify and explore variable groups and individual predictors of long sickness absences outside of well-known predictors such as service use and previous sickness absence using machine learning, explainable artificial intelligence methods and a submodel approach.DesignRetrospective study of prospectively collected registry data on sickness absences and a questionnaire used in health examinations.SettingElectronic medical record data of one large occupational health service provider in Finland.Participants11 533 employees of various occupations who, between 2011 and 2019, had at least once completed a health questionnaire that could be linked to service usage data and who had not had their initial health check within 1 year before or 3 months after completing the questionnaire.Primary outcome measuresTo identify predictors of at least one long sickness absence period (≥30 days) during a 2-year follow-up.ResultsThe highest area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) values among the submodel groups were for the sickness absence and service use submodels (0.68–0.74). The AUROC values for the submodels of sociodemographic factors, health habits or diseases data category ranged from 0.55 to 0.67 and from 0.55 to 0.67 for the submodels of questionnaire data. The AUROC value of the ensemble model that combined all submodels was 0.79 (95% CI 0.788 to 0.794).The most important factors predicting long sickness absences based on the submodels were reported pain, number of symptoms and diseases, body mass index and short sleep duration. Additionally, several work and mental health-related variables increased the risk of long sickness absence.ConclusionsOther variables besides service use and sickness absence increase the accuracy in predicting long sickness absence and providing information for planning interventions that could have a beneficial impact on work disability risk.

BackgroundPersistent pain is a major cause of work disability and early retirement, posing considerable challenges to welfare systems. The process of returning to work is complex and multifaceted, often becoming more difficult as the duration of absence increases. Most research on facilitators and obstacles for returning to work has focused on individuals on sick leave; less is known about those who are unemployed and receiving benefit payments. The aim in this study was to explore the obstacles and facilitators faced by participants with persistent pain, who are attempting to return to work while receiving benefit payments.MethodsIn this descriptive qualitative study, we used purposive sampling from a cohort study on the impact of being unemployed due to persistent pain. Semi-structured interviews were conducted using a topic guide, audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed using the Framework method.ResultsWe interviewed 29 participants, of whom 12 had partly or fully returned to work, while 17 had not. Themes emerged around participants’ experiences of obstacles and facilitators: (1) Norwegian Labour and Welfare Administration, (2) healthcare, (3) psychological, (4) pain, and (5) perceptions of work. For facilitators, additional themes of ‘luck’ and ‘disability pension’ emerged.ConclusionWhile struggling with pain and coexisting health issues, participants experienced overwhelming system and contextual obstacles. Key facilitators included fortuitous encounters with supportive welfare system staff and personal attributes such as psychological flexibility and determination. Our findings highlight areas of the welfare system that could be improved to provide more empathetic and person-centred pathways for people with persistent pain wanting to return to work.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-025-24747-0.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease whose main feature is persistent inflammation of the joints, leading to joint damage and loss of function. It is the most common inflammatory joint disease, affecting 1-2% of the population worldwide, with women being affected two to three times more often than men. The disease can cause joint pain, stiffness, swelling, and reduced joint flexibility. RA often affects the small joints of the wrists, hands, and feet, but can also affect larger joints and other organs. In addition to the joint features of the disease, RA is associated with increased morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular disease. Аs well as detrimental changes in body composition, thus favoring increased fat deposition and reduced muscle mass. These in turn further impair function and the ability to perform daily tasks. It is therefore not surprising that almost a third of RA patients become unemployed as a result of their condition and have a 10-fold higher rate of work disability compared to the general population. Inflammatory arthritis and osteoarthritis are the leading causes of pain and disability worldwide. RA is responsible for a significant reduction in physical activity. RA becomes a vicious cycle in terms of health and disease progression. Thus, it is clear that promoting physical activity is an important and essential part of the overall treatment of RA. Increasing physical activity is an intervention that can improve both disease-related and systemic manifestations in rheumatoid arthritis, while at the same time reducing the overall costs associated with the disease. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of activity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, the impact of exercise on the main symptoms such as pain, limited mobility and fatigue, on muscle strength and overall quality of life.

German social law provides a broad range of services aimed at maintaining work ability, facilitating return-to-work, and preventing permanent work disability; however, individuals with health impairments often lack information about available options and access, leading to underutilization of these services. This study (trial registration: DRKS00024648) evaluates the implementation of a multicomponent strategy designed to improve access to rehabilitation services and promote sustained work participation among individuals at elevated risk of permanent work disability. The intervention consisted of screening, postal contact, telephone counseling, initial interview, and case management. High-risk individuals were identified through a risk score based on administrative data (≥60 points indicating an increased 5-year probability of disability pension) and were invited by postal mail to call their regional case manager if support was required. Within the process evaluation, we assessed reach, dose delivered, fidelity, dose received, and participant satisfaction using case manager documentation and participant surveys at baseline and follow-up. Of 5300 individuals contacted, 277 engaged in case management. At baseline, participants reported an average of 20 weeks of sickness absence, multiple health conditions, and 63.7% rated their work ability as poor. Implementation fidelity exceeded 80%, and satisfaction with the intervention was high. Following case management, knowledge of rehabilitation services increased significantly ( P < 0.001), and 55.6% applied for rehabilitation. The findings demonstrate that the intervention successfully reached its target population with high fidelity and participant satisfaction. Observed improvements in knowledge and increased utilization of rehabilitation services suggest the intervention's potential to enhance access for those in need.

Abstract This qualitative interview study examined the changing role of emotions in understanding and forming work inability, and the tensions generated by differing emotional codes in the workplace. Data were collected in 2021 through 70 interviews in Finland’s municipal sector: young employees born between the late 1980s and early 2000s, their supervisors, and occupational health professionals born between the late 1950s and early 1980s. Three thematic areas were identified: (1) Codes of self-fulfilment were particularly pronounced among well-educated young employees in knowledge-intensive jobs, often prompting emotion-focused reflection on well-being and work ability. (2) Emotional codes diverged among young workers: while some emphasized emotional well-being as integral to their work ability, others normalized or embodied distress as part of working life, drawing on cultural norms of endurance shaped by differing socio-cultural experiences. (3) Shifting emotional codes have contributed to generational differences in how mental health and work ability are interpreted, leading to morally charged views on what constitutes legitimate work inability. We conclude that the evolving significance of emotions in shaping understandings of work ability and disability differentiates employee groups across diverse social and occupational backgrounds, generating tensions within the field of occupational health—particularly within the contested terrain of mental health.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease affecting multiple body parts. With a fluctuating range of symptoms, SLE imposes significant challenges and limitations on individuals at work. The objective of this review is to synthesise the existing literature on work disability in patients with SLE and identify factors associated with work disability and facilitators of returning to work (RTW). This systematic review is registered with PROSPERO (CRD420251011567). This protocol followed the PRISMA-P (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses for Protocols) guidelines. The search will be conducted using Business Source Premier, CINAHL, Cochrane Library, Embase, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, Scopus and Web of Science from inception to March 2025. At least two independent reviewers will complete screening, data extraction and critical appraisal. Eligible studies will focus on individuals with SLE and examine the barriers and facilitators to RTW. Eligible studies will be peer-reviewed, published in English or available in English translations. Unpublished research, opinion pieces, conference papers, abstracts, book chapters, knowledge syntheses, commentaries and grey literature will be excluded. This study does not require ethics approval. The results of the completed review will be published. CRD420251011567.

Abstract Background Self-employed workers face risks of work-related health problems, sickness absence and work disability, just as contracted employees. Although self-employed persons have theoretically access to occupational health care services including preventive work-related care, they may face barriers to use such in practice. This study aimed to get insight into the use and needs of preventive work-related care of self-employed workers. Methods Online questionnaires were administered to 407 self-employed workers (with 0-4 employees) from 12 sectors, using an existing online panel. Open and closed questions were about the use of preventive work-related care and the barriers and facilitators to make use of it. Results Self-employed workers estimate the risk of getting work-related complaints or work disability to be low (resp 65% and 61%), but if it would happen, about half of the respondents would find it serious (resp 40% and 56%). When looking at the different preventive work-related care activities self-employed workers participate in, a health check is performed most often(29%), followed by a training or workshop regarding health and healthy working (26%) and contact with an occupational physician (207%). Self-employed with a voluntary work disability insurance make more use of preventive activities than self-employed without insurance. Hearing from other self-employed workers about their preventive activities would motivate the use of activities. Barriers for not participating in preventive activities were not seeing the added value, not knowing about the possibilities, or no time. Conclusions Self-employed workers make little use of preventive work-related care. Providing information on preventive activities and social influence from other self-employed can promote and stimulate use. Key messages • Self-employed workers make little use of preventive work-related care, but would find it serious if they get work-related complaints or work disabled. • Access to preventive work-related care for self-employed could be promoted and stimulated by providing information and sharing good practices.

Abstract Background Pain can cause work disability and is common already among younger employees. To prevent pain-related work disability, it is important to understand how pain is associated with sickness absence in this age group and the impact of concurrent mental health, other health related factors and workload. Identifying modifiable health and work-related risk factors for recurrent pain and sickness absence among younger employees with pain, can facilitate prevention of pain and sickness absence. Methods Helsinki Health Study survey data, covering 4683 Finnish municipal employees who were 19-39-year-old at phase 1, were collected in 2017 (phase 1) and 2022 (phase 2). Data on pain, work- and health-related factors were derived from phase 1 and data on pain from both surveys. Register data on total and long-term sickness absence (spells &amp;gt;10 workdays) days were obtained from the employer and the Social Insurance Institution of Finland. Results At phase 1, 42 % reported pain, with 20% reporting chronic (≥3 months) pain. Recurrent pain was reported by 25% (pain at phase 1 and 2). Reporting chronic pain, multisite (&amp;gt;1 body site) pain, or poorer mental health were associated with higher total SA during the subsequent year. Employees with chronic or multisite pain and concurrent poorer mental health were at a higher risk of long-term sickness absence in the subsequent year. Obesity, smoking, manual work, and high physical workload were associated with long-term sickness absence during 27-month follow-up among employees with pain. High physical and mental workload, non-daily vegetable consumption, obesity, and sleep duration other than 7-8h associated with recurrent pain. Conclusions Pain affects a large proportion of younger employees. Promoting favorable physical and psychosocial working conditions, encouraging healthy lifestyles, preventing obesity, and supporting mental well-being may help reduce pain and long-term sickness absence among younger employees with pain. Speakers/Panellists Jutta Lindert Hochschule Emden-Leer, Emden, Germany João Vasco Santos University of Porto, CINTESIS, ARS Norte, Porto, Portugal

Abstract Background Work disability pensions pose a significant burden on society, both in terms of economic costs and the availability of a sustainable workforce, especially as populations age. Individual risk factors for pensions, such as poor health, unemployment and low socioeconomic status are well-known. This study aims to uncover the complex interactions between socioeconomic and health-related risk factors using machine learning and displaying them in a graphical model in a way that traditional multivariate statistical models are not able to. Methods Using repeated survey data from the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 (NFBC1966) we predicted the work ability score, with low scoring known as a strong predictor of disability pensions, of the cohort members at age 46 using Bayesian network structure learning algorithms. Our predictors included socioeconomic and health measures at birth and follow-ups at ages 14, 31 and 46. Results Using 22 predicting variables we modeled a structure with 114 interactions. The fit of the model to the data was BIC = -15.01. According to cross-validation, the predictive accuracy of the model is .80, SD = .009. Conclusions The high interconnectedness between the variables implies that modeling risks with traditional statistical methods and controlling for all interactions may not be sufficient nor viable to understand the complex interactions between socioeconomic background, employment history and health that contribute to work disability risk. Probabilistic graphical modeling with Bayesian networks allows all these interactions to be included in predictive modeling. By visualizing and pinpointing key variables with significant influence on work ability, this study enables more precise intervention planning and resource targeting, maximizing public health impact for work disability risk management and related societal cost savings. Key messages • Work disability risk is shaped by complex interactions between health and socioeconomic factors, which traditional statistical models may either oversimplify or ignore. • Interpretations of Bayesian networks can offer a powerful tool for policymakers to design data-driven, targeted interventions that reduce disability pension occurrence.

Exploring the link between socioeconomic factors and rheumatoid arthritis: Insights from a large Austrian study.

Long-term outcomes after a functional restoration program for non-specific chronic low back pain: A 10-year longitudinal study.

Abstract Background Commuting physical activity provides health benefits but also increases the risk of accidents. While the higher risk of accidents and injuries is particularly pronounced among cyclists, bicycle commuting may reduce the risk of sickness absence (SA). We examined the risk of commuting accidents across different commute modes and assessed the net health effects of active commuting by accounting for both accident and SA outcomes. To date, such evidence is limited particularly in Nordic winter conditions. Methods With up to two-year follow-up, we examined the relative risk of register-based commuting accident and SA across primary commute mode choices (vs. car) and levels of active commuting (vs. no walking or cycling) among Finnish public sector survey respondents (N = 22340-32562), adjusting the models for potential confounders. To estimate absolute risks and net effects on work disability, SA and accident incidence were modelled per 100 person-years (p-y) by each commute mode and by the weekly volume of walking and cycling. Results All-year-round cyclists had 4.1-fold (95% confidence interval 3.2-5.3) higher accident risk and, on average, 2.8 more accidents per 100 p-y than car commuters. Compared to daily car commuting, also walking and public transport use were associated with a higher risk of commuting accidents, up to twofold higher in winter. The incidence of cycling accidents was highest in the group with most commuted kilometres by bicycle, particularly in winter. The most active cyclists had, however, also a lower risk of SA days (0.90, 0.83-0.97) and long (&amp;gt;9 days) SA spells (0.81, 0.72-0.90), contributing to up to 531 fewer SA days, and 11 long spells less per 100 p-y compared to passive commuters. No similar benefits were observed for walking. Conclusions Cycling to work decreases the SA risk to the extent that it outweighs the increased risk of commuting accidents. Whether the benefits are related to improved mental or somatic health will be discussed.

Abstract Background With the growing number of children and adolescents diagnosed with psychiatric conditions, the number of young workers with a psychiatric diagnosis is expected to rise. From both public health and clinical perspectives, gaining more knowledge about these individuals is important, as they may require special considerations regarding working conditions to ensure successful and sustainable workforce entry. Methods We used data from the Danish Worklife Course Cohort (DaWCo), a register-based cohort of all young workers (aged 15-30) entering the Danish labour market between 1995 and 2018 (1.5 million individuals). We identified the prevalence of psychiatric diagnoses before age 40 in a national in- and outpatient hospital admissions registry. Using Poisson regression, we analyzed the association between psychosocial work factors, measured by job exposure matrices, and the risk of disability pension before age 45. Results A total of 245,111 (16.0%) young workers were diagnosed with a psychiatric condition before age 40. The three most prevalent diagnostic groups were stress and adjustment disorders (F43, 5.0%), alcohol-related disorders (F10, 3.3%), and depressive episode (F32, 2.7%). Longitudinal analyses suggested a higher risk of disability pension with psychiatric diagnoses for those working in jobs with low influence compared to those working in jobs with high influence. No clear associations were found for other work environment factors (quantitative and emotional demands, job strain, and workplace violence). Conclusions A substantial proportion of young adults entering the labour market have or develop a psychiatric diagnosis within their early years of labor market participation. Among workers with psychiatric diagnoses, low influence at work emerged as a risk factor for early labour market exit. More knowledge about modifiable factors of sustainable workforce entry for these individuals is crucial to support their future labor market participation.

Abstract Background Poor health can exacerbate social inequalities by limiting individuals' ability to accumulate wealth and sustain employment, contributing to health selection effects. Among younger patients with rare diseases (RDs), these effects may be more pronounced, with long-term consequences for human capital, career development, and income. Building on a review of international literature, this communication highlights the methodological challenges in assessing the work-related consequences of RDs. Methods A systematic literature review was conducted following the PRISMA checklist. PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science were searched (2013-2023) for studies on employment or work ability among individuals with RDs compared to a control group. Results Of 7,694 abstracts screened, 44 studies on 34 RDs met inclusion criteria. Findings consistently indicated a negative impact of RDs on employment outcomes, supporting the presence of health selection effects: 87% of studies reported higher rates of work disability, 90% noted increased absenteeism, and all studies (100%) found greater impairment at work among RD populations. However, the majority relied on medico-administrative data, often excluding pediatric conditions and thereby skewing the representation of RDs. In addition, a lack of longitudinal designs across studies limited the ability to explore reverse causality between health status and employment outcomes. Conclusions Individuals with RDs generally face poorer work-related outcomes. However, current research is constrained by methodological shortcomings, particularly the absence of longitudinal data and underrepresentation of pediatric diseases, which hinder a clear understanding of health selection effects. Future research should prioritize longitudinal designs and more inclusive data sources to better capture the complex, bidirectional relationship between health and employment, and to inform effective policy responses. Key messages • Rare diseases are linked to poor work outcomes, but social mechanisms and biases must be considered. Work ability should be supported by including rare diseases in work policies. • Individuals with rare diseases face work challenges, but research limitations, such as lack of longitudinal data, hinder understanding of the complex link between health and employment outcomes.

BackgroundMusculoskeletal and mental disorders often co-occur with and contribute significantly to work disability and reduced quality of life in aging populations. These conditions may follow distinct or overlapping progression patterns across the life course, particularly from midlife to old age. We studied the multi-trajectory of back pain and mental disorders from midlife to old age and examined the role of work-related physical and psychosocial factors in four cohort studies from Europe (Finland, France, and the UK) and the US.MethodsData from four independent prospective cohort studies: ELSA, FLAME, GAZEL, and HRS were used. About 40,000 participants aged 36-66 years (mean age 50 years) at baseline, who had information on back pain (yes/no) and reported common mental disorders from at least three points of the follow-up in each cohort, were studied. Potential joint development of back pain and mental disorders was examined with multi-trajectory models in each cohort separately.ResultsThree trajectory models were identified as the best fitted solution in each cohort with majority (50-70%, varies between cohorts) having both increased back pain and increasing mental disorders over time, about 5-20% had increased back pain but decreased in mental disorders and about 20-35% had changing back pain and increasing mental disorders. The majority had increased back pain and mental disorders simultaneously, which increased with age.ConclusionsThis multi-cohort study suggests the co-occurrence of back pain and common mental disorders among midlife employees, and the increasing levels of both symptoms were found with increasing age. The finding suggests that in clinical practice, these symptoms should be looked at together in their early phase.Key messages• Musculoskeletal pain and common mental disorders among midlife employees co-occurs.• Increasing levels of both symptoms were found by increasing age and this trend was similar in all studied cohorts.

Abstract Background Work disability has both individual and work-related causes. Maintaining work ability is crucial because disability incurs significant costs for individuals, workplaces, and society. Vocational rehabilitation is a key means to promote return-to-work, improve work ability, and prevent disability. Methods The data consisted of persons who had been granted the right to vocational rehabilitation by a pension insurance company in 2014-2020, who had a rehabilitation plan drawn up and whose rehabilitation process had ended by 31.12.2021 (N = 7 142). This high-quality data covers approximately 30% of rehabilitation patients, with the Finnish system providing comprehensive monitoring for all individuals. As a modelling method, we used logistic regression. Results The older age was the strongest predictor of the likelihood of receiving disability benefits after vocational rehabilitation. Among the 51-56 age group, the odds ratio (OR) was 2.53 and among rehabilitants aged 56 years or over, the OR was 7.33. In addition, statistically significant predictors of receiving disability benefits included diseases assessed as medically serious (OR 3.16), applications for disability pension rights with granted rehabilitation allowance (OR 1.88), previous rehabilitation allowance periods (1-2 periods OR 1.69; over 2 periods OR 2.08) and main diagnosis of mental health disorders (OR 1.83), nervous system (OR 1.82) or circulatory system (OR 1.53) diseases. Conclusions Many factors affect return-to-work which should be considered already when applying for or planning rehabilitation. Older rehabilitators with prolonged allowance periods should be targeted with enhanced programs which better support return-to-work. Key messages • Older age and more serious illnesses increase the likelihood of receiving disability benefits within a year of completing vocational rehabilitation.

Abstract Introduction Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory and demyelinating disease of the central nervous system predominantly affecting young adults of working age, with significant implications for patients, healthcare systems, and society. Globally, MS prevalence reached 2.8 million in 2020, a 32% increase since 2013, with Europe showing the highest incidence. The economic burden extends beyond direct healthcare costs to include substantial indirect costs such as productivity losses and informal care. In Slovakia, prior studies focused mainly on direct costs, but evolving treatment options and healthcare delivery necessitate a comprehensive assessment of both direct and indirect costs over the last decade. Methods This study conducted a retrospective, prevalence-based analysis of the economic burden of MS in Slovakia from 2013 to 2022, adopting a societal perspective. Data were obtained from national health insurance companies for direct healthcare costs and the Social Insurance Agency for indirect costs related to productivity losses. The human capital approach was used to estimate productivity loss costs. The methodology aligns with European cost-of-illness frameworks, distinguishing direct costs (drugs, therapies, hospitalizations) from indirect costs (work disability, absenteeism, informal care). Results MS prevalence in Slovakia increased by 43.3% between 2013 and 2022. Direct healthcare costs rose by 62.4%, driven primarily by pharmacotherapy and medical services. Indirect costs, especially those related to work disability, increased substantially, with per-patient indirect costs rising by 51%. The total economic burden reflects a significant and growing impact on both healthcare resources and societal productivity, underscoring the need for effective resource allocation. Conclusions The study highlights the substantial and increasing economic burden of MS in Slovakia, emphasizing the importance of incorporating both direct and indirect costs in healthcare planning. Findings support the need for updated resource allocation strategies and targeted interventions to address productivity loss and support caregivers, ensuring sustainable management of MS amid evolving treatment landscapes and demographic shifts.

Introduction: The health status of employees influences productivity and absenteeism in the workplace. In Costa Rica, no studies exploring the relationship between the work environment and employee health were found. Methodology: This study employed a quantitative, descriptive, and cross-sectional approach. The population consisted of workers from a private company in Costa Rica, with a sample size of 92 merchandisers. The study variables included lipid profile, fasting blood glucose, insulin levels, anthropometric data, age, and disabilities. Logistic regression models were used to observe the effect of fasting blood glucose, altered blood pressure, and worker’s nutritional status on the quantification of the risk of work disability. Additionally, the Hosmer-Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test was performed (statistical significance p≤0.05). Results: The sample had an average age of 34±7.7 years, and over 75% were overweight to some degree. A significant association (p&lt;0.04) was found between triglyceride levels and HDL cholesterol (p&lt;0.02) with age. It was determined that for each unit increase in glucose, the risk of disability increased 7% (OR: 1.07, 95% CI 1.01-1.14), significantly. Conclusions: In this population, most risk factors occur independently of age, which is a cause for concern. Individuals with altered fasting blood glucose have a higher risk of disability compared to those without this factor.

Risk of Suicide among US Adults with Work Disability.