Word Recognition Latencies Research Articles

A delay in processing for repeated letters: Evidence from megastudies

Repetitions of letters in words are frequent in many languages. Here we explore whether these repetitions affect word recognition. Previous studies of word processing have not provided conclusive evidence of differential processing between repeated and unique letter identities. In the present study, to achieve greater power, we used regression analyses on existing mega-studies of visual word recognition latencies. In both lexical decision (in English, Dutch, and French) and word naming (in English), there was strong evidence that repeated letters delay visual word recognition after major covariates are partialed out. This delay was most robust when the repeated letters occurred in close proximity but not in immediate adjacency to each other. Simulations indicated that the observed inhibitory pattern of repeated letters was not predicted by three leading visual word recognition models. Future theorizing in visual word recognition will need to take account of this inhibitory pattern. It remains to be seen whether the appropriate adjustment should occur in the representation of letter position and identity, or in a more precise description of earlier visual processes.

Can prediction-based distributional semantic models predict typicality?

Recent advances in the field of computational linguistics have led to the development of various prediction-based models of semantics. These models seek to infer word representations from large text collections by predicting target words from neighbouring words (or vice versa). The resulting representations are vectors in a continuous space, collectively called word embeddings. Although psychological plausibility was not a primary concern for the developers of predictive models, it has been the topic of several recent studies in the field of psycholinguistics. That is, word embeddings have been linked to similarity ratings, word associations, semantic priming, word recognition latencies, and so on. Here, we build on this work by investigating category structure. Throughout seven experiments, we sought to predict human typicality judgements from two languages, Dutch and English, using different semantic spaces. More specifically, we extracted a number of predictor variables, and evaluated how well they could capture the typicality gradient of common categories (e.g., birds, fruit, vehicles, etc.). Overall, the performance of predictive models was rather modest and did not compare favourably with that of an older count-based model. These results are somewhat disappointing given the enthusiasm surrounding predictive models. Possible explanations and future directions are discussed.

Interhemispheric connectivity during lateralized lexical decision.

The well-established right visual field (RVF-lh) advantage in word recognition is commonly attributed to the typical left hemisphere dominance in language; words presented to the LVF-rh are processed less efficiently due to the need for transcallosal transfer from the right to left hemisphere. The exact stage for this hemispheric transfer is currently unsettled. Some studies suggest that transfer occurs at very early stages between primary visual regions, whereas other studies suggest that transfer occurs between the left visual word form area and its right hemisphere homolog. This study explores these conflicting accounts and finds evidence for both. Participants conducted a lateralized lexical decision task with both unilateral and bilateral display conditions. Connectivity analyses were conducted from magnetoencephalography signals that were localized to the left middle occipital gyrus (LMOG), right middle occipital gyrus (RMOG), left visual word form area (LVWFA), and right visual word form area (RVWA). Results from unilateral trials showed asymmetrical interhemispheric connectivity from the RMOG to LMOG and symmetrical interhemispheric connectivity between the LVWFA and RVWFA. Furthermore, bilateral presentations led to reduced interhemispheric connectivity between both homologous region of interest pairs. Together, these results suggest that lateralized word recognition involves multiple stages of interhemispheric interactions and that these interactions are reduced with bilateral displays.

Cognitive responsive e-assessment of constructive e-learning

Semantic networks from 900 high education students from different knowledge domains were obtained by using a computer system. Then computer simulated schemata behavior and/or analysis of semantic networks allowed to select relevant course schemata related words to implement semantic priming studies to test for students´ word recognition latencies of schemata word pairs before and after a course. A trained neural net successfully recognized students who integrated course schemata related concepts in their lexicon from those who did not by analyzing recognition times after a course. Thus, an innovative e-assessment was implemented by developing a software system that integrates cognitive reports of mental representation due to learning (constructive assessment) with cognitive reports of automatic recognition processing of course content (reactive assessment). It is argued that this combination of cognitive assessment leads to innovative advanced forms to evaluate e-learning.

Encoding time and the mirror effect in recognition memory: Evidence from eyetracking

Abstract Low-frequency (LF) words have higher hit rates and lower false alarm rates than high-frequency (HF) words in recognition memory, a phenomenon termed the mirror effect . Visual word recognition latencies are longer for LF words. We examined the relationship between eye fixation durations during study and later recognition memory for individual words to test whether (1) increased fixation time on a word is associated with better memory, and (2) increased fixation times on LF words can account for their hit rate advantage. In Experiments 1 and 2, words of various frequencies were presented in lists in an intentional study design. In Experiment 3, HF and LF critical words were presented in matched sentence frames in an incidental study design. In all cases, the standard frequency effect on eye movements emerged, with longer reading times for lower frequency words. At test, studied words and new words from each frequency class were presented. The hit rate portion of the mirror effect was evident in all experiments. The time spent fixating a word did predict memory performance in the intentional encoding experiments, but critically, the frequency effect on hit rates was independent of this effect. Time spent fixating a word during incidental encoding did not predict later memory performance. These results suggest that the hit rate advantage for LF words is not due to the additional time spent on these words at encoding, which is consistent with retrieval-stage models of the mirror effect.

Emotion and language: valence and arousal affect word recognition.

Emotion influences most aspects of cognition and behavior, but emotional factors are conspicuously absent from current models of word recognition. The influence of emotion on word recognition has mostly been reported in prior studies on the automatic vigilance for negative stimuli, but the precise nature of this relationship is unclear. Various models of automatic vigilance have claimed that the effect of valence on response times is categorical, an inverted U, or interactive with arousal. In the present study, we used a sample of 12,658 words and included many lexical and semantic control factors to determine the precise nature of the effects of arousal and valence on word recognition. Converging empirical patterns observed in word-level and trial-level data from lexical decision and naming indicate that valence and arousal exert independent monotonic effects: Negative words are recognized more slowly than positive words, and arousing words are recognized more slowly than calming words. Valence explained about 2% of the variance in word recognition latencies, whereas the effect of arousal was smaller. Valence and arousal do not interact, but both interact with word frequency, such that valence and arousal exert larger effects among low-frequency words than among high-frequency words. These results necessitate a new model of affective word processing whereby the degree of negativity monotonically and independently predicts the speed of responding. This research also demonstrates that incorporating emotional factors, especially valence, improves the performance of models of word recognition.

Structural asymmetry of anterior insula: Behavioral correlates and individual differences

The current study investigated behavioral correlates of structural asymmetry of the insula, and traditional perisylvian language regions, in a large sample of young adults (N=200). The findings indicated (1) reliable leftward surface area asymmetry of the anterior insula, (2) association of this asymmetry with divided visual field lateralization of visual word recognition, and (3) modulation of the correlation of structural and linguistic asymmetry by consistency of hand preference. Although leftward asymmetry of cortical surface area was observed for the anterior insula, pars opercularis and triangularis, and planum temporale, only the anterior insula asymmetry was associated with lateralized word recognition. We interpret these findings within the context of recent structural and functional findings about the human insula. We suggest that leftward structural lateralization of earlier developing insular cortex may bootstrap asymmetrical functional lateralization even if the insula is only a minor component of the adult language network.

How strongly do word reading times and lexical decision times correlate? Combining data from eye movement corpora and megastudies

We assess the amount of shared variance between three measures of visual word recognition latencies: eye movement latencies, lexical decision times, and naming times. After partialling out the effects of word frequency and word length, two well-documented predictors of word recognition latencies, we see that 7-44% of the variance is uniquely shared between lexical decision times and naming times, depending on the frequency range of the words used. A similar analysis of eye movement latencies shows that the percentage of variance they uniquely share either with lexical decision times or with naming times is much lower. It is 5-17% for gaze durations and lexical decision times in studies with target words presented in neutral sentences, but drops to 0.2% for corpus studies in which eye movements to all words are analysed. Correlations between gaze durations and naming latencies are lower still. These findings suggest that processing times in isolated word processing and continuous text reading are affected by specific task demands and presentation format, and that lexical decision times and naming times are not very informative in predicting eye movement latencies in text reading once the effect of word frequency and word length are taken into account. The difference between controlled experiments and natural reading suggests that reading strategies and stimulus materials may determine the degree to which the immediacy-of-processing assumption and the eye-mind assumption apply. Fixation times are more likely to exclusively reflect the lexical processing of the currently fixated word in controlled studies with unpredictable target words rather than in natural reading of sentences or texts.

The role of saccade preparation in lateralized word recognition: Evidence for the attentional bias theory

Words presented to the right visual field (RVF) are recognized more readily than those presented to the left visual field (LVF). Whereas the attentional bias theory proposes an explanation in terms of attentional imbalance between visual fields, the attentional advantage theory assumes that words presented to the RVF are processed automatically while LVF words need attention. In this study, we exploited coupling between attention and saccadic eye movements to orient spatial attention to one or the other visual field. The first experiment compared conditions wherein participants had to remain fixated centrally or had to make a saccade to the visual field in which subsequent verbal stimuli were displayed. The orienting of attention by saccade preparation improved performance in a lexical decision task in both the LVF and the RVF. In the second experiment, participants had to make a saccade either to the visual field where verbal stimuli were presented subsequently or to the opposite side. For RVF as well as for LVF presentation, saccade preparation toward the opposite side decreased performance compared to the same side condition. These results are better explained by the attentional bias theory, and are discussed in the light of a new attentional theory dissociating two major components of attention, namely preparation and selection.

Visual word recognition in young and older adults: A study of cohort effects for lexical variables

The aim of the present research was to determine whether lexical variables corresponding to the lexicons of young and older adults are better predictors of visual word recognition latencies than lexical variables that are not specifically adapted to the populations. Three variables were considered (subjective frequency, age of acquisition, objective frequency). Subjective frequency and age of acquisition ratings were provided by the young and older adults of the experiment, while four objective frequency measures were collected in four norms for the French language based on texts dating from different periods. As a whole, 220 words were presented to 45 young adults and 40 older adults in a lexical decision task. Regression analyses showed that objective frequency, subjective frequency, and age of acquisition were better predictors of the lexical decision latencies of young and older adults when they were accorded with the lexicons of the populations.

Use of context in the word recognition process by adults with a significant history of reading difficulties

We examined whether university students who report a significant history of reading difficulties (RD; n = 24) differed from university students with no history of reading difficulties (NRD; n = 31) in how sentence context affects word recognition. Experiment 1 found no differences in how congruent sentence primes or syntactic manipulations of the sentence primes affected the performance of the two groups. However, only the RD group displayed a significant inhibition effect when the target word was preceded by an incongruent sentence prime. Experiment 2 found that the groups differed in how meaning frequency of the target word and context strength of the sentence prime affected word recognition latencies. The results suggest that the RD participants' performance is context-sensitive and better explained by interactive models of language processing than by modular models.

Semantic influences on morphological facilitation

Two semantic variables, concreteness and morphological family size, were examined in a single word and a primed lexical decision task. Single word recognition latencies were faster for concrete relative to abstract targets only when morphological family size was small. The magnitude of morphological facilitation for primes related by inflection was greater than by derivation although both revealed a very similar interaction of concreteness and family size. In summary, concreteness influenced morphological processing so as to produce slower decision latencies for small family abstract than concrete words both in a single word and in a morphologically primed context. However, magnitudes of facilitation in isolation from baselines provided an incomplete account of morphological processing.

Magnifying effects on visual word recognition: A dynamic display for Internet-based experiments

A visual presentation procedure is introduced that presents target words followed by a dynamic mask until recognition. This form of stimulus degradation prolongs the word recognition process. Differences in word recognition latencies-which are usually quite small--are magnified, and thus can be more easily observed. The results of two experiments on the Internet with a total of 141 participants establish the task's ability to magnify differences in word recognition latencies stemming from word familiarity (Experiment 1) and word prototypicality (Experiment 2). Both factors interact with stimulus degradation, but at different presentation intervals; these results are discussed as evidence for comparing models of word recognition. The new procedure can be used for assessing individual differences, such as implicit motives and self-focused attention. Further applications are discussed.

Noticing The Self: Implicit Assessment Of Self-focused Attention Using Word Recognition Latencies

Self-focused attention is difficult to measure. Two studies developed an implicit measure of self-focus based on word recognition latencies. Self-focused attention activates self-content, so self-focused people should recognize self-relevant words more quickly. Study 1 measured individual-differences in self-focused attention. People scoring high in private self-consciousness recognized self-relevant words more quickly. Study 2 manipulated objective self-awareness with a writing task. People who wrote about distinctive self-aspects (high self-awareness) recognized self-relevant words more quickly compared to people who wrote about a neutral topic (low self-awareness) and people who did no writing (control). The discussion considers implications for future research on self-focused attention.

Case alternation and length effects in lateralized word recognition: Studies of English and Hebrew

Effects of CaSe AlTeRnAtIoN were studied in two lateralized visual lexical decision experiments. We manipulated word length and letter case (UPPER, lower and MiXeD) in both English (Exp. 1, N=60) and Hebrew (Exp. 2, N=60). The previously reported visual field and word length interaction was found for upper and lower case presentation, but not for MiXeD CaSe, where both fields were affected by word length. The effects of case alternation are discussed in light of a new lateralized word recognition theory.

Measuring differences in preactivation on the Internet: the content category superiority effect.

Preactivation of particular content categories in memory yields latency differences in a visual recognition task. Two Internet studies demonstrate this content category superiority effect (CCSE). Target words are repeatedly flashed for 400 ms and then masked for 200 ms. Experiment 1 shows that differences in pre-activated memory content, related to participants' use of computer operating systems, influence z-scored visual word recognition latencies. Experiment 2 shows that this influence is susceptible to instruction. Participants expecting to find positive words recognized those words faster, whereas participants expecting to find negative words were faster on negative words. The CCSE provides a basis on which new measures of implicit memory content can be founded. Two such applications are discussed--the Motive Superiority Measure of implicit motives, and a latency-based measure of self-focused attention.

Mixed-case effects in lateralized word recognition

Effects of case alternation and word length were studied in a lateralized visual lexical decision task. The previously reported visual field and word length interaction was found for upper- and lowercase presentations, but not for MiXeD CaSe, where both fields were affected by word length. We discuss the results in light of two contrasting models of lateralized word recognition.

Lateralized word recognition: Assessing the role of hemispheric specialization, modes of lexical access, and perceptual asymmetry.

Lateralized word recognition: Assessing the role of hemispheric specialization, modes of lexical access, and perceptual asymmetry.

Lateralized word recognition: assessing the role of hemispheric specialization, modes of lexical access, and perceptual asymmetry.

The processing advantage for words in the right visual field (RVF) has often been assigned to parallel orthographic analysis by the left hemisphere and sequential by the right. The authors investigated this notion using the Reicher-Wheeler task to suppress influences of guesswork and an eye-tracker to ensure central fixation. RVF advantages obtained for all serial positions and identical U-shaped serial-position curves obtained for both visual fields (Experiments 1-4). These findings were not influenced by lexical constraint (Experiment 2) and were obtained with masked and nonmasked displays (Experiment 3). Moreover, words and nonwords produced similar serial-position effects in each field, but only RVF stimuli produced a word-nonword effect (Experiment 4). These findings support the notion that left-hemisphere function underlies the RVF advantage but not the notion that each hemisphere uses a different mode of orthographic analysis.

Language and Task Effects on Lateralized Word Recognition

Behavioral laterality effects in naming and lexical decision in Farsi and English were used to evaluate three theories of cross-linguistic differences. First, the Scanning hypothesis predicts a smaller right visual hemifield advantage (RVFA) in Farsi in both tasks. Second, the Cerebral Dominance hypothesis predicts a consistent RVFA in both languages. Third, the Right Hemisphere hypothesis predicts a selective decrease in RVFA in Farsi for those components of the task that involve lexical semantic access. Results supported the Right Hemisphere hypothesis, showing greater right hemisphere contribution to orthographic addressing in Farsi than in English.