Sentence-level language processing speed in diffuse glioma: lesion location and contralesional structural variability.

How does language use inform the emergence of word meanings in early life? Prior work in developmental psychology and the cognitive sciences typically focuses on studying word acquisition in children without specifying how different senses within a word emerge through time. To shed light on word sense acquisition, we propose a framework grounded in state-of-the-art computational methodologies of contextual word embedding to characterize how different senses of a word unfold as children acquire their lexicon. Our framework identifies word senses automatically by forming semantic clusters through natural language use, and analyzes 1,270 words from approximately 4 million utterances produced by children (19 to 144 mo) and their caretakers. The psychological validity of these senses was assessed based on a combination of dictionaries, human judgment of semantic similarity, and evaluation from a large language model. We then tested three hypotheses motivated by existing work on word sense emergence in language evolution. First, concrete senses of a word tend to emerge earlier than more abstract senses in child language. Second, word senses grow incrementally in semantic space across development. Third, algorithms of semantic chaining-how words spawn new senses by extending from existing senses-recapitulate the order of word senses in development. We find support for all three hypotheses. Our work suggests that the development of word meaning in language acquisition resembles that in language evolution and offers a converging view on the cognitive principles and mechanisms across timescales in the ontogeny and phylogeny of word sense emergence.

The Japanese writing system combines visually intricate logographic kanji with simpler phonographic kana. Moreover, Japanese is a subject-object-verb (SOV), head-final language with flexible word order, which often increases structural complexity and imposes additional cognitive demands during sentence processing. Despite these unique features, the spatial limit of visual processing in Japanese has not been thoroughly investigated. To identify the perceptual span, the present study employed a gaze-contingent moving window paradigm to measure the amount of information acquired per fixation in two experiments. The results showed that reading speed and fixation duration resembled those in the control condition, with no viewing constraint applied, when the window revealed five characters to the left and six to the right of fixation. The perceptual span in Japanese falls between those of English and Chinese, supporting the notion that the visual density of a writing system affects perceptual span. Notably, the perceptual span in Japanese appears more symmetrical than in other writing systems. These findings offer insights into visual processing mechanisms during reading.

This article aims to explain the theory of “step theory”, named by me, on the origin and evolution of the language. The theory argues that it is necessary to focus not only on the origin of language, but also on its evolution after the birth. Derek Bickerton has asked “how humans made language?” in his book named Adam’s Tongue. On the other hand, the step theory seeks an answer to the question of “how did the root language evolved after the birth?” According to the theory, the language evolved through seven steps after “direct imitation”. These steps are “overcoming time and place barriers”, “the emergence of symbolic words”, “the birth of specific meanings and functions from the types of sounds (phono semantic)”, “the reproduction of words”, “word order (syntax)”, “the emergence of inflection” and “differentiation (division into dialects and languages)” respectively. Firstly, these steps and current situation are explained in the article. Furthermore, the divergence of the languages from each other and the divergence of the words from their primary forms (the emergence of arbitrariness) are explained in eight points. Parallels between human evolution and language evolution have also been drawn attention in this study.

Abstract The article examines number agreement in the verb olla ‘to be’ in the Soikkola dialect of Ingrian. Although Ingrian distinguishes two grammatical numbers, in the Soikkola dialect there is competition between three verb forms: singular, plural and impersonal. The aim of this study is to identify the factors that determine the choice of a particular verb form in constructions with a plural subject. The analysis is based on recordings made in the 21st century by the authors and their colleagues. The study shows that the most significant factors influencing the choice of the verb form are verb tense and polarity, word order, and individual preferences of a native speaker, which correlate with sub-dialectal zones. A comparison of the results obtained with the data from previously published Soikkola texts suggests that the agreement system observed in the 21st century is not an innovation, because modern data and previous materials exhibit similar patterns.

The article examines a persistent word order pattern in Bulgarian, from classical tenth-century Old Bulgarian through Early Modern Bulgarian to the present day. It is characterised by discontinuity between the subject and the predicate due to the insertion of adjuncts. By analysing the attested occurrences in the text of the Bible in Greek, as well as in contemporary Ukrainian, Polish, and Czech, we find that the studied word order pattern is typical of these languages as well. On the basis of these observations, we make conclusions about the possible universality of this word order model.

Speech requires precise serial ordering of words and phonemes into novel combinations. To accomplish this, the brain is believed to flexibly prepare utterances before producing them, even allowing pronunciation of never-before spoken words. To discover how neural populations achieve this, intracortical activity from premotor cortex was recorded while two speech neuroprosthesis pilot clinical trial participants attempted to speak factorially-balanced phoneme sequences. During preparation, activity encoded not only the next-phoneme, but multiple upcoming phoneme positions spanning whole words. We found that word-level plans were formed by compositionally combining phoneme representations, a mechanism that may enable efficient planning of novel sequences. When utterances contained more than one word, premotor cortex activity was largely limited to the first word, suggesting that articulatory planning is segmented by higher-order features. Together, these results reveal a compositional, hierarchically-segemented planning geometry, potentially a universal neural strategy for sequence organization across higher levels of language.

While corpus-based instruction has demonstrated efficacy in English-as-a-second-language writing development, its application to non-Indo-European languages remains limited. This study investigates whether integrating corpus-driven activities into Kazakh language classrooms can bolster writing proficiency, grammatical accuracy, and learner engagement among Russian-dominant seventh graders. Using a quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test study with 112 Russian-dominant seventh graders in Kazakhstan, this study examined whether integrating corpus-driven activities into Kazakh language classrooms can improve writing proficiency, grammatical accuracy, and learner engagement. A quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test design was employed, comparing an experimental group receiving corpus-supplemented instruction with a control group receiving standard textbook-based instruction. Repeated-measures analyses of covariance revealed that the six-month-long intervention yielded significant improvements in lexical quality and grammatical word order, alongside moderate gains in verb conjugation. While writing accuracy and case use showed within-group progress, between-group differences were non-significant. Self-reported boredom declined in the treatment group, though the effect size was small and post-intervention comparisons were statistically indistinguishable. Findings suggest that corpus-integrated pedagogy enhances lexical sophistication and select grammatical competencies in L2 Kazakh writing, while its impact on overall accuracy and affective engagement remains nuanced. The study contributes to the scarce literature on data-driven learning in non-Anglophone contexts by demonstrating the partial transferability of corpus methods to agglutinative languages, with implications for L2 writing instruction in typologically diverse settings.

Aim. To investigate key socio-cultural, linguistic and methodological problems of teaching children of foreign citizens in primary schools in the Russian segment of general education, to identify main factors that make it difficult for them to integrate and successfully master a foreign language, and to formulate recommendations for adapting curricula to support migrant children in Russian schools. Methodology is based on the principles of humanization and inclusivity of education, as well as on a personalized approach that focuses on the development of students’ individual resources, their ability to learn language and culture. The analysis of normative legal documents, a review of psychological, pedagogical, linguistic, didactic, and sociological literature on the adaptation of migrant children were used as theoretical methods. For the empirical part, methods of interviewing and interviewing teachers and migrant schoolchildren were used, as well as monitoring the process of introducing bilingual and gaming techniques in classrooms with a high proportion of foreign speakers. Results of the study made it possible to systematize the main barriers (language interference, cultural shock, lack of methodological training of teachers, bureaucratic obstacles) and develop recommendations for teaching a foreign language and culture, the development and socialization of children of foreign citizens. Identified: 1) socio-cultural difficulties of interacting with this category of students; 2) linguistic difficulties studied on the example of the Tajik language, which are expressed by phonetic interference (absence of soft consonants, mobile stress), difficulties with the case system and the type of verbs, as well as the transfer of word order from agglutinative languages. A methodological analysis has shown that standardized curricula do not take into account the bilingual characteristics and needs of multiethnic classes, and less than 25% of teachers have techniques for working with multilingual groups, which requires the development of polymodal programs, teacher training, and the introduction of digital and gaming techniques for the effective adaptation of migrant children in Russian schools. Methodological recommendations are proposed to minimize the problems of teaching children of foreign citizens a foreign language at the initial stage. Research implications of the research lies in: 1) theoretical substantiation of a communicative and pragmatic approach to the education, development, upbringing and socialization of children of citizens of foreign countries at the initial stage of language education; 2) comprehensive analysis of three key problems faced by children of citizens of foreign countries in the Russian school system such as socio-cultural, linguistic and methodological. It is theoretically proved that methodological problems are aggravated by the lack of adaptation of standard programs to needs of bilingual and multiethnic classes, the lack of trained specialists and the lack of modern means of supporting students with a migration history. The methods and techniques of teaching foreign language to children of citizens of foreign countries based on a communicative and pragmatic approach are proposed. The practical significance of the study lies in the fact that, based on a communicative and pragmatic approach, methodological recommendations are proposed for the use of the following methods of teaching foreign language to foreign citizens’ children: 1) systematic introduction of lexical and grammatical material; 2) constant visualization of educational content; 3) game interaction of students. Considering the complex of identified socio-cultural, linguistic and methodological problems, the proposed recommendations contribute to the effective integration of children from foreign countries into the segment of Russian school education. Conclusions. The conducted research has shown that there are several socio-cultural, linguistic and methodological problems faced by children of citizens of foreign countries in the Russian school system. This involves theoretical justification and practical development of additional educational materials that can minimize educational, educational and socio-cultural barriers in a multiethnic classroom.

Language acquisition in children with hearing impairment is affected by limited auditory input, which influences their spoken language development. Consequently, deaf children rely more on visual cues, gestures, and situational context in communication. This study aims to describe Indonesian language acquisition in deaf children at SLB Bhina Putera Surakarta by examining four linguistic aspects: phonology, morphology, semantics, and syntax, as well as identifying learning strategies that support communication. This research employed a descriptive qualitative method. Data were collected through in-depth interviews with teachers and supported by relevant literature. Data analysis was conducted by classifying findings based on linguistic aspects and interpreting them descriptively. The results show that language acquisition in deaf children is functional and context-dependent. Phonologically, difficulties in producing certain sounds were observed. Morphologically, children mainly used basic word forms with limited variation. Semantically, meaning comprehension relied on visual experience and context. Syntactically, sentence structures often showed word order reversals and did not fully conform to standard Indonesian grammar, yet remained communicative. Visual-based learning strategies that consider individual characteristics were found to support language development in deaf children.

This study examines the phenomenon of syntactic interference arising from the structural differences between Indonesian (L1) and German (L2) in compositions written by B1-level students. The primary objective was to systematically identify, categorize, and analyze the specific forms of negative transfer. Utilizing the error analysis framework established by Corder and James, the data comprising 21 student compositions, were rigorously classified into systematic errors and incidental mistakes. The analysis revealed 15 distinct types of syntactic interference, predominantly involving critical German structures such as verb conjugation, word order (in both main and subordinate clauses), and the use of prepositions. The most frequently occurring form of negative transfer was observed in German verb conjugation errors. The overwhelming classification of observed instances as errors confirms a deep-seated negative transfer from the mother tongue to the target language system. These findings possess significant educational value, as they precisely map the areas where Indonesian speakers require the most targeted linguistic intervention. The results strongly recommend the integration of a contrastive learning approach and emphasize the urgent need for reinforcement activities that specifically build syntactic awareness in German instruction. This research serves as an evidence-based tool for practitioners, guiding the refinement of curriculum and pedagogical strategies to effectively minimize recurrent interference and enhance the precision of L2 acquisition at the intermediate level.

Semantic roles, namely the agent (‘doer’) and patient (‘undergoer’) roles, are fundamental to language acquisition, as they enable learners to map meaning onto syntactic structure. Grammars typically impose a binary classification on how these roles map onto syntactic functions. These functions are encoded through features such as agreement, case marking and word order, which children gradually acquire through exposure to their linguistic environment. Notably, child-directed speech constitutes a primary source of linguistic input during acquisition (Hart & Risley, 1995; Weisleder & Fernald, 2013). At present, little is known about the effects of child-directed speech on the learning of semantic roles and even less in languages with diverse grammatical features. Here, we investigate whether child-directed speech facilitates the learning of semantic roles, specifically examining whether it enhances semantic role interpretation compared to adult-directed speech. We examine English and Russian, two languages, which differ fundamentally in how they encode semantic roles, thereby presenting distinct challenges for the language-learning child. We use artificial neural language models to analyse the statistical properties of naturalistic child-directed and adult-directed speech, testing which register more effectively facilitates semantic role learning. In Study 1, we examine whether semantic roles are more easily classified in naturalistic utterances from child-directed speech than adult-directed speech. In Study 2, we test which register better supports learning and generalising semantic roles by evaluating language models trained on either register on the same controlled test set. Study 1 shows that semantic roles are more easily classified in child-directed speech than adult-directed speech, with a more pronounced effect in Russian than in English. This suggests that child-directed speech may be optimised more strongly in a language where semantic roles are expressed in more varied forms and positions, as is the case in Russian. Study 2 shows that the knowledge of semantic roles can be generalised by the models to structures that do not frequently occur in either child-directed speech or adult-directed speech, and that, on the whole, this is more successful based on input from child-directed speech than adult-directed speech in both languages. Our results provide first evidence that child-directed speech is tailored to the language-specific needs of children, facilitating the acquisition of semantic roles, which are a prerequisite for the acquisition of syntax. These findings show that child-directed speech actively supports the acquisition of of semantic roles, helping children map meaning onto syntactic structure.

Dependency syntax as the simplest theory of grammar.

Abstract Grammatical features across human languages exhibit intriguing correlations, often attributed to learning biases in humans. Language models (LMs) provide a scalable and naturalistic framework for studying artificial language learning—one not available in human research. We investigate how learnability varies across typologically plausible and implausible languages that closely follow the word order universals identified by linguistic typologists. Our study trains LMs on highly naturalistic counterfactual versions of English (head-initial) and Japanese (head-final). Compared to prior work, our datasets more precisely target the boundary between typological plausibility and implausibility. Our experiments show that LMs learn subtly implausible languages more slowly, though they eventually reach similar performance on some metrics regardless of typological plausibility. These findings suggest that LMs exhibit typologically aligned learning preferences and that certain typological patterns may emerge from general learning biases. https://github.com/sally-xu-42/Typological_Universals.

Abstract This study tested the applicability of the Interface Hypothesis by investigating the acquisition of discourse constraints concerning Japanese pronouns. It extends previous studies on second language (L2) Italian in three ways. First, the two factors affecting the choice of antecedents for pronouns, topichood and subjecthood, were separated to determine the more crucial one. Second, it investigated the distribution of subject and object pronouns. Third, it considered the effects of the antecedents’ surface word order. The written interpretation and production tasks show that (i) subjecthood is crucial in determining antecedents for null pronominal subjects in Japanese, not topichood or word order, and (ii) L2 grammar is not different from monolingual grammar except when interpreting specific null pronominal subjects, attributable to a task effect. The latter fails to support the Interface Hypothesis but supports the view that all aspects of the discourse-syntax interface are not necessarily problematic in L2 acquisition.

A fundamental issue in reading research concerns whether words are encoded serially (one at a time in the order they are encountered) or in parallel (concurrently with the encoding of neighboring words). This debate has reignited recently with evidence showing that readers can encode word order flexibly and often fail to detect grammatical violations produced by transposing adjacent words (e.g., "The white was cat big"). These transposed word effects have been accommodated under both parallel accounts (due to the simultaneous processing of multiple words) and under serial accounts (due to temporal overlap in the integration of adjacent words). However, the precise nature of the effect remains contentious. To examine these contrasting accounts, we conducted six novel experiments that manipulated spatial and temporal aspects of transposed-word stimulus processing. Experiments 1a and 1b show equivalent transposed-word effects for displays that allow or disallow simultaneous processing of transposed words. Experiments 2a and 2b show enlarged transposed-word effects when whole sentence stimuli are displayed at fast presentation rates, but only when spatial cues to word location are unavailable. Experiments 3a and 3b show that the transposed-word effect is larger when the first than second transposed word is presented at a faster presentation rate. Overall, our findings are inconsistent with claims that flexible word order encoding is attributable to parallel word recognition. Instead, they show a temporal component to flexible word order encoding, consistent with claims that they can be explained by overlapping integration stages within serial models.

There has been a continuous rise in the emergence of media, including print, audio, and visual forms such as newspapers, television, and radio. One of the forms of media is newspapers, which is used in an extensive way as a tool for damaging the reputation of others. This research conducts a critical discourse analysis of defamation in selected English newspapers. The researcher examines the syntactic and lexical features used in newspapers in conducting the act of defamation, as well as the ideologies embedded in these linguistic features. The researcher aims to discover the hidden ideologies that are embedded in language words and structure by conducting a critical discourse study. To conduct such a study, the researcher adopts an eclectic model consisting of Fairclough's three-dimensional model and van Dijk's ideological discursive strategies. The data are two cases taken from two English newspapers. The researcher concludes that defamatory articles contain syntactic features such as modality, word order and nominalization. Each of these strategies contains a specific ideology, such as criminalization and discrimination.

Higaonon [mba], spoken by an estimated 452,000 people in north-central Mindanao, remains undocumented despite its vitality as a ‘developing language.’ The present study addresses this gap by documenting the Opol variety in Misamis Oriental through a descriptive analysis of its phonology, morphology, and syntax. Data collected from tribal leaders using elicited words and sentence lists reveal a system comprising 16 consonant phonemes, five vowels, and phonemic stress. Lexical items are categorized as open classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs) and closed classes (pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, and linker). In alignment with other Philippine languages, Higaonon exhibits predicate-initial word order and includes both verbal and non-verbal sentence types. By contextualizing these findings with previous orthographic work by the Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino (2023), which documented vowel variation among Higaonon communities in Bukidnon, Agusan, and Misamis Oriental, the study highlights both convergence and divergence within the language. The description of the Opol variety complements earlier orthographic observations and establishes a foundation for comparative dialectological research across Mindanao. In addition to its linguistic significance, the study supports cultural preservation, addresses prejudice against Indigenous Peoples, and serves as a resource for Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE).

ABSTRACT Previous studies investigating the role of case marking and word order in cross‐linguistic structural priming have yielded inconsistent findings, largely within bilingual contexts and between typologically closely related languages. The present study extended this line of research into a trilingual context and a typologically distinct language combination by examining cross‐linguistic priming of ditransitive structures among Tibetan–Chinese–English trilinguals. The three languages differ in both case marking (Tibetan has case marking, while Chinese and English do not) and word order (Tibetan is SOV, but Chinese and English are SVO). The results showed reliable priming effects in the tested cross‐language directions (L1/L3 to L2, L1/L2 to L3), providing no evidence that differences in case marking and word order hinder cross‐linguistic structural priming in this trilingual context. The findings further suggested largely shared (L1–L2, L2–L3), and partially connected (L1–L3), representations of ditransitive structures among trilinguals. Additionally, no evidence was found that L3 proficiency modulated the priming effects.

ABSTRACT In multilingual educational contexts, understanding how first language (L1) systems shape the autonomous development of second language (L2) grammar is increasingly important, particularly in trilingual settings. The study investigates the influence of Polish (L1) grammar on the self-directed acquisition of English (L2) among learners who are proficient in or acquiring a third language (L3: German, French, or Russian). Although crosslinguistic influence (CLI) is well documented in second language acquisition, few studies address L1-mediated L2 grammar learning in autonomous contexts among trilinguals. Conducted across multiple philological faculties in Poland, the study involved 175 university students enrolled in language programs. A mixed-methods design enhanced methodological rigor by integrating grammar elicitation tasks, written reflections, and semi-structured interviews, enabling triangulated analysis of morphosyntactic transfer, interlinguistic influence, and structural convergence. Findings indicate that Polish grammar exerts both facilitative and constraining effects at syntax–pragmatics and syntax-semantics interfaces. Learners exhibited overgeneralization, null subject transfer, and word order interference, while actively using L1 as a cognitive scaffold and filter. These patterns suggest strategic regulation rather than passive transfer, highlighting the role of metalinguistic awareness and grammar monitoring. The study reframes L1 influence in autonomous learning and offers implications for designing multilingual, autonomy-supportive grammar instruction in practice.