Woody Endocarp Research Articles

Immunomodulatory Effects Associated with Lactofermented Cherry Beverage Consumption in Rats

Cherry is a fruit which contains elevated amounts of antioxidant compounds, such as anthocyanins, pigments, and vitamins. Furthermore, it possesses high water, sugar, mineral, and indolamine contents. The general objective of this study was to characterise a cherry-based fermented beverage (the ‘sweetheart’ variety) and analyse the effects of its ingestion on (i) circulating serum levels of melatonin and serotonin, (ii) inflammatory response, and iii) serum total antioxidant capacity in rats (Rattus norvegicus). For cherry-based fermented beverage manufacturing, the cherries were washed, the stems and woody endocarps were removed, and ascorbic acid was added (to avoid enzymatic browning). After the homogenisation of the cherry fruit, lactic acid bacteria were inoculated, and the fermentation process was conducted for 36 h. The main bioactive compounds in the cherry beverage were characterised, as well as their total antioxidant capacity. Moreover, an in vivo assay was developed, in which rats ingested the fermented beverage ad libitum for seven days. The inflammatory mediators, the total antioxidant capacity, and the serum levels of melatonin and serotonin were measured. Based on these results, the intake of the cherry-based fermented beverage assayed in this study increased the total antioxidant status of rats, elevated the melatonin and serotonin levels in the serum, and improved the regulation of the inflammatory systemic processes.

Subprodutos agroindustriais do baru (Dipteryx alata Vog.) como ingrediente nutritivo e saudável na formulação de brownies

ABSTRACT: The baru (Dipteryx alata Vog.) fruit stands out among the fruits native to the Cerrado for its high agri-food potential, and it consists of a thin peel covering the pulp and a woody endocarp coating the nut. During the extraction process of baru nut or its oil, the peel, pulp, and partially defatted nut are usually discarded or used as animal feed. However, these by-products are rich in proteins, dietary fibers, and bioactive compounds. Food preparations like brownies are attractive and popular despite having a high energy density and a low phytochemical content. Thus, this study developed nutritious brownie formulations using baru food ingredients [BFI: a mixture of partially defatted nut flour (DBF) with baru peel and pulp flour (BPF)]. Three formulations were tested: SBF - standard brownie made with wheat flour; BBF1 - brownie made by replacing wheat flour with BFI1 (50% DBF + 50% BPF); and BBF2 - brownie made by replacing wheat flour with BFI2 (75% DBF + 25% BPF). The chemical composition and functional properties of the brownies were evaluated. The addition of baru by-products in the formulations resulted in products with higher contents of protein, dietary fiber, phenolic compounds, and greater antioxidant capacity than the standard brownie. Therefore, the use of baru food ingredients in food formulations is indicated to design new food products with improved nutritional quality and nutraceutical properties.

Water uptake in germinating pecan (Carya illinoinensis) seed.

Water uptake is the fundamental and essential requirement for seed germination. Pecan seed has a hard woody endocarp that plays an important role during water uptake. To explore water uptake during germination, the spatiotemporal pattern of water and effect of the endocarp were analysed using high-field MRI, dye-tracing, wax blocking and SEM of water uptake. Isolated seeds completed water uptake in 8 h while whole seeds required 6 days, hence, cracking the endocarp plays an important role. The hilum is the channel through which water enters the seed, while the remainder of the seed coat consist of cells covered with a waxy layer that act as a barrier to water absorption. The region with the highest water content in pecan seed is the edge of the U-shaped region, and water can progressively diffuse from this U-shaped region into the whole kernel. We report a new water absorption stage between phase II and phase III of the triphasic model of water uptake of pecan seeds. Cracking the endocarp changed water distribution in pecan seeds, which may trigger further water absorption and radicle elongation.

Preservation quality of plant macrofossils through a Quaternary cave sediment sequence at Naracoorte, South Australia: Implications for vegetation reconstruction

Plant macrofossils are an important source for detailed vegetation reconstructions, often at the species level, which usually cannot be achieved with other plant material such as pollen and spores. However, the preservation quality of plant macrofossils is not well understood, especially in cave settings. Here, we assess the preservation quality of Quaternary plant macrofossils of Casuarinaceae, Astroloma humifusum, Banksia marginata and Eucalyptus species for Robertson Cave, in the World Heritage listed Naracoorte Caves. We conclude that the level of preservation varies considerably among taxa and plant organs, which can influence the vegetation reconstruction. Woody endocarps and fruits preserved better as macrofossils than leaves and flowers. The age of the sediment did not always impact the preservation quality, although in some cases it led to clear deterioration. The impact of fire was evident and possibly influenced the preservation potential of some taxa. Therefore, care must be taken when reconstructing vegetation from plant macrofossils as preservational changes and floristic change are sometimes difficult to separate.

Embryo Culture, In Vitro Propagation, and Molecular Identification for Advanced Olive Breeding Programs

The high biodiversity of the olive tree is an important opportunity to develop sustainable plans to control Xylella fastidiosa (Xf) through breeding programs. Olive tree breeding activities have been limited due to various features of this species including the long time required for seed germination caused by the inhibition effect of the woody endocarp, the seed integument, and the endosperm. Starting from F1 seeds by cross-breeding, the embryo culture was compared with traditional seed germination, evaluating the effectiveness of in vitro multiplication of the plantlets for large-scale production. The isolated embryos were established on a new medium based on Rugini ‘84 macroelements, Murashige & Skoog ‘62 microelements, with Nitsch J. P. & Nitsch C. ‘69 vitamine and subcultured on Leva MSM modified. The results obtained confirmed that in vitro culture of olive embryos is a valid tool for increasing the percentage and speed of germination, helping to reduce the time of the olive breeding programs, offering the possibility to effectively propagate plantlets for further experiments.

Germination of palm seeds under periods of rehydration

Abstract Palm seeds are indicative of being recalcitrant species. Seeds germination for many species, is slow and uneven, even in favorable conditions, often due to the resistance of the woody endocarp that makes them impermeable to water. Most species also have the characteristic of not tolerating the drying process at low moisture levels, thus losing their viability. In view of these considerations, the objective was to evaluate the effect of different periods of rehydration on the germinative process of seeds of royal palm, dwarf palm and jeriva. Seeds were homogenized and immersed in water containing 3 times their volume, with daily replacement. The experimental design used was completely randomized, with 5 treatments (0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 days of rehydration), with 4 replications of 25 seeds. The seeds were placed in transparent “gerbox” plastic boxes containing medium vermiculite as substrate and placed in BOD with a photoperiod of 16-hour of light and their respective optimum temperatures for each species. The number of germinated seeds was counted every 2 days until germination stabilized. The variables analyzed were germination percentage, germination speed index (GSI), average germination time (AGT) and distribution of germination over the days. Rehydration for 3 days increased the germination rate of royal palm seeds. For dwarf and jeriva species, rehydration did not influence the analyzed variables. The GSI and AGT were negatively influenced by the rehydration periods for royal palm. Rehydration prolonged the peak of germination of the studied species.

SymplocosFruits from the Pliocene of Colombia

Abstract—Fossil fruits ofSymplocos(Ericales: Symplocaceae) are here recognized from the Pliocene of Guasca, Colombia, based on specimens formerly attributed toCordia(Cordiaceae, Boraginales).Symplocos vera(Berry) comb. nov. is represented by 19 lignitized fruits. The fossils are recognized as belonging toSymplocosprimarily by their woody endocarps that are apically truncate and that possess 3 to 5 apical germination pores and locules, and a central vascular canal extending the length of the endocarp. In several key characters they are highly congruent with the endocarps of the extant Neotropical cladeS.ser.Symplocos. Some of the extant species in the series are variably 3- to 5-locular; 4-locular endocarps are otherwise rare inSymplocos, and 5-locular endocarps appear to be unique to this series.Symplocos verais the only specifically named record of fossilSymplocosfruits with accessible voucher specimens from South America. The younger Neogene age of the fossils relative to those attributed toS.ser.Symplocosfrom the late Eocene of Texas, along with a report of Colombian fossil endocarps from the middle Miocene, supports the North America to South America migration inferred for this clade from molecular phylogenetic data.

Influência das temperaturas de secagem nas características físico-químicas da polpa do baru

O barueiro (Dipteryx alata Vogel) é uma espécie frutífera do Cerrado, que produz o baru, uma drupa de coloração marrom, formato ovoide e abriga no seu interior uma única amêndoa. Sendo a amêndoa o principal produto, a polpa e o endocarpo lenhoso são descartados. Considerando as potencialidades desse material e seguindo a tendência da minimização do desperdício de alimentos, quantificaram-se os compostos fenólicos totais, flavonoides, taninos, pH, acidez total titulável, sólidos solúveis totais e atividade antioxidante da polpa do baru submetida à secagem a 50, 60, 70 e 80 °C. A amostra seca a 80 °C apresentou o menor teor de flavonoides. Taninos e fenólicos totais não se diferiram entre as temperaturas de secagem, e a atividade antioxidante apresentou menor proteção na polpa seca a 50 °C. A secagem da polpa do baru em temperaturas entre 60 e 70 °C é viável para a preservação das potencialidades bioativas e físico-químicas.

Stone Fruits: Growth and Nitrogen and Organic Acid Metabolism in the Fruits and Seeds-A Review.

Stone fruits of the Rosaceae family consist of several distinct parts, and these include the flesh, woody endocarp, and seed. To understand the metabolism of these fruits, it is necessary to have knowledge of both their structure and growth characteristics. The nitrogen metabolism of the different tissues of stone fruits is interlinked. For example, there is an import and storage of nitrogenous compounds in the endocarp that are then exported to the seed. Moreover, there are links between the metabolism of nitrogen and that of malic/citric acids. In this article, the structure and growth characteristics, together with the import/export, contents, metabolism, and functions of nitrogenous compounds and organic acids in the different parts of stone fruits and their seeds are reviewed.

Characterization of Amount and Quality of Tucuman Kernel Oil as a Potential Biomass

AbstractAmazonian tucuman (Astrocaryum aculeatum) fruit pulp is consumed directly without heat treatment, and is appreciated in the region of Manaus, Amazonas State, Brazil. The kernel is discarded after pulp removal, resulting in costs related to waste management. This study aimed to perform an estimate on the annual amount of kernels generated by commercialization of tucuman fruit in six markets in Manaus by monthly application of questionnaires to merchants. The yield of edible pulp and kernels were assessed, as well as the yield and characteristics of kernel oil. Fruits consisted of pulp (26% fresh weight) and the coproduct is mainly pyrene (70%), comprising a hard woody endocarp (61%) and an oily kernel (39% dry weight). Kernel oil yield ranged from 28% to 45%. The generated coproducts were estimated as 272 t/y (fresh weight) and approximately 6–10 t/y of lauric oil could be obtained. The main fatty acids were lauric—12:0 (52.3–57.5%) and myristic—14:0 (23.4–27.1%), presenting a similar profile to other lauric oils such as coconut, palm kernel, and babassu oils. Oxidative stability ranged from 20 to 44 hours, which is considered high compared to other lauric oils. The recovery of this coproduct will improve the sustainability of the tucuman chain, providing a new product of Amazonian biodiversity and reducing the environmental impact.

Fossil evidence for a Cretaceous rise of the mahogany family.

The mahogany family (Meliaceae) is an angiosperm lineage comprising many species that are important elements in tropical ecosystems, and is often used as a study system to understand the evolution of tropical rainforests. While divergence time studies have estimated a Cretaceous origin for the family, no unequivocal fossils of that age have been described. Here, the first Cretaceous evidence for Meliaceae is reported, based on an exceptionally well-preserved fruit from the Upper Cretaceous (79-72 Ma, Campanian) of North America. The fossil fruit was prepared using traditional paleobotanical techniques. Bayesian phylogenetic analyses using morphological and molecular data were conducted to assess the phylogenetic position of the Cretaceous fruit in Meliaceae and to assess the effect of morphology for inferring the overall pattern of phylogeny for the family. The fruit consists of a fleshy mesocarp and a woody endocarp with a hollow center, nine locules, loculicidal sutures, and one subapically attached seed per locule that has an enlarged sarcotesta near the hilum. The combination of characters in this fruit is strikingly similar to the genus Melia L. Phylogenetic analyses recover the Cretaceous fruit as being closely related to Melia and highlights the effect of fruit morphological data for inferring the overall pattern of phylogeny in Meliaceae. There are a few structural differences between the fossil fruit of this study and Melia; thus, the newly characterized Cretaceous taxon is named Manchestercarpa vancouverensis gen. et sp. nov. These results clearly confirm a Cretaceous origin for Meliaceae and that important tropical families were present prior to the development of modern tropical ecosystems in the Cenozoic.

Unexpected hard-object feeding in Western lowland gorillas.

Gorilla diets are characterized by large amounts of fruit and tough fibrous plant material. Hard-object feeding is not generally associated with this genus as the high crests on their molar teeth would be at risk of damage from the mechanically challenging woody endocarp. This study aims to demonstrate that at least one population of western lowland gorillas are seasonal hard-object feeders, orally processing the seeds of Coula edulis. Feeding behavior of habituated western lowland gorillas and phenology of fruiting trees was observed over a 4-year period to determine the extent they exploited the seeds of C. edulis. Additionally, the endocarps of C. edulis were subjected to testing to determine their mechanical properties. Our results demonstrate that during the fruiting season (January, February, and December) gorillas consistently opened the seeds of C. edulis using their postcanine dentition. The protective endocarp is composed of a very stiff material, presenting a substantial mechanical challenge to a gorilla. However, the high ratio between elastic modulus and toughness will facilitate brittle, cataclysmic fracture of the seed shell given a high enough load. Although a rich energy source, C. edulis likely tax gorilla dentitions to their upper limit. The rarity of such behavior at sites where it could be observed may indicate a degree of social learning or culture driving its occurrence. This shows a greater breadth of gorilla diets than previously described and suggests gorillas may be a useful model for interpreting the dietary mechanics that necessitated robust craniodental morphology in australopiths.

Influence of seed pre-treatments on seed germination and early seedling developments of jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.)

The Chinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) is among one of the oldest cultivated and utilized species in the fruit domestication history of China (7000 years). The Chinese jujube is still an underutilized fruit grown in the natural flora of Turkey. Until recently, the Chinese jujube was propagated primarily by root suckers, but more farmers in China now are carrying out grafting or budding onto seedling rootstocks to maintain the benefits of elite cultivars. Even if jujube seeds are viable, they are not able to germinate readily due to its hard and thick woody endocarp seed coat and dormancy. Thus, best conditions for seed germination that will yield in viable and well-developed seedling should be determined. This study was conducted to do so. In this research, the effects of various pre-treatments on jujube seeds native to the Mediterranean region of Turkey were studied to find out the best treatment for seed germination and early seedling development by means of plant heights, numbers of developed leaves, stem diameter and chlorophyll index values. Seeds, prior to sowing, were treated as follows: 1) control (C); 2) water treatment for 24 h (W+24 h); 3) hot water at 45°C for 1/2 h (HW+1/2 h); 4) acid treatment (A) for 30 min (1/2 h) then in water for 24 h (H2SO4+24 h W) (A); 5) scarification (S); 6) dehulled seeds (D); 7) dehulled damage membrane (DD). Pre-treated seeds were seeded in 70% peat + 15% perlite + 15% vermiculite (v:v:v) media that were kept in an acclimatization room at 70-75% relative humidity and 25°C temperature. Results indicated that the highest germination rate was obtained by treatment D (dehulled seeds; 63.33%) and followed by treatment S (scarification; 50.00%). The lowest germination was obtained from C (control; 3.33%). The other measurements on plant heights, numbers of developed leaves, stem diameter and chlorophyll index values were also found to be correspondingly higher in treatments D and S.

Environmental factors influencing fruit production and seed biology of the critically endangered Persoonia pauciflora (Proteaceae)

The factors that influence seed production and seed dormancy in rare plant species are crucial to their conservation yet are often poorly understood. In this study, we examined the breeding system and seed biology of the critically endangered Australian endemic species Persoonia pauciflora through a series of experiments. Pollinator visitation surveys and manipulative hand-pollination treatments were conducted to investigate the breeding system and subsequent seed production. We used an experimental seed burial to examine the breakdown of the woody endocarp and changes to germination over time. Seed germination response under simulated local seasonal conditions was also examined. Persoonia pauciflora was found to be predominantly pollinated by native bees, and cross-pollinated flowers produced significantly more mature fruit (18 ± 3%) than self-pollination treatments (2–3%). The average strength of P. pauciflora pyrenes buried in soil significantly decreased over two years, from 413.3 ± 14.6 N to 130.8 ± 11.8 N. Post-burial seed germination was cyclical, with highest final germination percentage occurring following late-summer exhumations (75 ± 2% and 74 ± 14%, respectively). When seeds were incubated under different local seasonal conditions, germination at local summer temperatures was more likely when compared with autumn/spring and winter temperature-incubated seeds. Our study highlights the importance of ensuring appropriate biotic pollen vectors are present in the local landscape for maximising viable fruit production for this species. In addition, our data indicate that recruitment will most likely occur after the endocarp has suitably weakened, allowing physiological dormancy of the embryo to be relaxed and germination to commence following summer temperatures.

Cretaceous asterid evolution: fruits of Eydeia jerseyensis sp. nov. (Cornales) from the upper Turonian of eastern North America.

The asterids (>80 000 extant species) appear in the fossil record with considerable diversity near the Turonian-Coniacian boundary (~90 Ma; Late Cretaceous) and are strongly represented in the earliest diverging lineage, Cornales. These early asterid representatives have so far been reported from western North America and eastern Asia. In this study, we characterize a new cornalean taxon based on charcoalified fruits from the upper Turonian of eastern North America, a separate landmass from western North America at the time, and identify early palaeobiogeographical patterns of Cornales during the Cretaceous. Fossils were studied and imaged using scanning electron microscopy and micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) scanning. To assess the systematic affinities of the fossils, phylogenetic analyses were conducted using maximum parsimony. The charcoalified fruits are represented by tri-locular woody endocarps with dorsal apically opening germination valves. Three septa intersect to form a robust central axis. Endocarp ground tissue consists of two zones: an outer endocarp composed of isodiametric sclereids and an inner endocarp containing circum-locular fibres. Central vasculature is absent; however, there are several small vascular bundles scattered within the septa. Phylogenetic analysis places the new taxon within the extinct genus Eydeia. Thick-walled endocarps with apically opening germination valves, no central vascular bundle and one seed per locule are indicative of the order Cornales. Comparative analysis suggests that the fossils represent a new species, Eydeia jerseyensis sp. nov. This new taxon is the first evidence of Cornales in eastern North America during the Cretaceous and provides insights into the palaeobiogeography and initial diversification of the order.

ОСОБЕННОСТИ ЛАТЕНТНОГО ПЕРИОДА МИНДАЛЯ МОНГОЛЬСКОГО И МИНДАЛЯ ЧЕРЕШЧАТОГО

Relevance. Many species of the genus Prunus s.l. (Rosaceae) are known for their edible fruit, but they are also of interest for processing into biofuel. Assessment of the quality of reproductive diasporas (the degree of development of the embryo, endosperm, and performance) of wild plant species is an indicator of the prospects for their cultivation. The study of the peculiarities of the latent period gives valuable data for the development of methods for growing potentially useful plant species. The quality of the emerging fruits and seeds of the wild-growing Prunus mongolica Maxim. and P. pedunculata (Pall.) Maxim. has not yet been evaluated. Object. Species of the genus Prunus (Rosaceae) collected in the province of Inner Mongolia (China), which are used for introduction into the Peter the Great Botanical Garden. Materials and methods. Stone fruit of these species were collected in 2015 and 2016 from wild plants in the province of Inner Mongolia, China (70 km northeast of the city of Baotou). Methods of germination and fluoroscopic analysis of drupes were earlier described in detail by K. G. Tkachenko. To measure the germination, the drupes were divided into two groups: the first was cleared from the woody endocarp in order to evaluate the laboratory germination; the second consisted of whole drupes. Both were sown in October into ceramic pots, and buried for the winter in open ground to check the field germination. The germinated sprouts were documented in the early June. X-ray analysis of fruits and seeds was made on a mobile X-ray diagnostic device developed at St. Petersburg Electrotechnical University (LETI). Results and conclusions. The fruits of the two wild almond species P. mongolica and P. pedunculata harvested in their natural habitats (70 km to the north-east from the city of Baotou, Inner Mongolia Province, China) were full-fledged and plump. The main bulk was attributed to the V and IV classes of development. The laboratory germination of seeds freed from endocarp was 100% for both species. Germination of the seeds of the first species was extended in time (100% sprouted in 60 days), while with the second species, all seeds sprouted within 15-20 days. The field germination of unshelled drupes of these species was 57 and 63%, respectively.

Tracking the Initial Diversification of Asterids: Anatomically Preserved Cornalean Fruits from the Early Coniacian (Late Cretaceous) of Western North America

Premise of research. The initial radiation of core eudicots (>70% angiosperm diversity) occurred during the Late Cretaceous (100.5–66 Ma). While there is strong fossil evidence for this diversification occurring throughout the Cenomanian (100.5–93.9 Ma) and Turonian (93.9–89.8 Ma), there are no unambiguous reports of the largest core eudicot clade, the asterids, from pre-Coniacian deposits (89.8–86.3 Ma). This study provides new insights into the early evolution of asterids by characterizing anatomically preserved fruits from the early Coniacian (∼89 Ma) of North America that represent three new taxa assignable to the earliest-diverging asterid order, Cornales.Methodology. Three fossil fruit types were identified within calcareous concretions from the Upper Cretaceous Eden Main locality on Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Specimens were prepared using the cellulose acetate peel technique.Pivotal results. These fruits have a thick-walled woody endocarp with germination valves, one apically attached seed...

Cretaceous origin of dogwoods: an anatomically preserved Cornus (Cornaceae) fruit from the Campanian of Vancouver Island.

BackgroundCornaceae consists of 58 species, all within the genus Cornus. The Cenozoic record of Cornus is extensive and well documented. Molecular divergence-time studies suggest that crown-group Cornus may have originated by the Late Cretaceous. However, there has been no formal report of Cornus from Cretaceous deposits. Here, we characterize a permineralized fossil fruit assignable to Cornus subg. Cornus from the Upper Cretaceous (Campanian) Shelter Point locality of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada.MethodsSerial sections of the specimen were made using the cellulose acetate peel technique. Peels were mounted onto microscope slides and studied by light microscopy.ResultsThe fossil fruit consists of a tri-locular woody endocarp with dorsal germination valves. The locules are sub-triangular to ellipsoidal in transverse section and are separated by thin septa. Endocarp tissue consists of elongated and isodiametric sclereids and secretory cavities. Internal vascular tissue was not observed, but is interpreted to have been located along the outer periphery of the septa for some length, common in many cornalean taxa. There is one seed in each locule, one of which was found to have endosperm and a dicotyledonous embryo.DiscussionWoody endocarps with germination valves, without central vascular bundles, and with one seed per locule are characteristic of several families within the order Cornales. The interpreted vascular pattern and presence of secretory cavities indicates that the fossil fruit is assignable to Cornus subg. Cornus. Comparative analysis suggests that the fossil is most similar to Cornus piggae, a species described from the Paleocene of North Dakota. This fossil is the first evidence of crown-group Cornaceae from the Cretaceous and sheds light on both the plesiomorphic fruit characters and the timing of the initial diversification of the family and basal asterid lineage, Cornales.

Identification of the seasonal conditions required for dormancy break of Persoonia longifolia (Proteaceae), a species with a woody indehiscent endocarp.

The mechanisms involved in breaking seed dormancy in species with woody endocarps are poorly understood. In a landmark study examining the role of endocarps in regulating germination, our aim was to investigate the effects of the natural sequence of environmental conditions on dormancy break of a species with a woody endocarp (Persoonia longifolia). The role of the endocarp in germination was investigated through imbibition and endocarp removal germination tests. The use of burial to break dormancy was examined and results from these experiments were used to guide laboratory investigations into the use of wet/dry cycling and stratification to break dormancy. Endocarps were water-permeable. Germination increased from 0 to 92·5 % when endocarps were removed. During burial in the field and nursery, 41·6 and 63·7 % of the endocarps germinated, respectively, after 36 months. Ex situ post-burial germination was cyclical and highest after 30 months of burial (45·4 % nursery and 31·8 % field). Highest germination occurred in wet/dry trials when the dry summer was long (20 weeks), had fluctuating temperatures (30/50 °C) and two long (7 d) wet cycles and was followed by moist winters at 10/20 °C. A stratification trial found that highest germination occurred following incubation for 12 weeks at 30 °C (including 2 weeks moist) + 6 weeks moist at 8 °C then placement at 20/10 °C for germination. Summer conditions break physiological dormancy of the embryo and promote opening of the endocarp, allowing seeds to germinate during winter conditions. By closely monitoring the environment that endocarps are exposed to in nature, dormancy breaking mechanisms can be identified and used to improve germination. These results outline for the first time how dormancy and germination are regulated in a species with a hard woody endocarp, insights which will significantly improve our understanding of other species with similar reproductive features.

A Revision of the South African Genus <I>Hermas</I> (Apiaceae)

Abstract The morphologically and phylogenetically anomalous genus Hermas is revised and nine perennial species are recognized, all endemic to mountain slopes within the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa. The new combination Hermas lanata is instated as the correct name for H. pillansii, based on the oldest available basionym. The latter species is also shown to be a very narrow endemic of the Cape Peninsula (Table Mountain to Noordhoek), not extending into the Jonkershoek Mountains as previously reported. The genus is characterized by fruits with woody endocarps, rhomboidal crystals, and pseudo-wings, all features shared with subfamily Azorelloideae, but recent phylogenetic analyses suggest that Hermas is an isolated lineage in the family, possibly sister to subfamily Apioideae s. l. An isolated position for Hermas is supported further by the unique floral morphology, viz. petaloid sepals and filiform petals, both of which are recovered as generic synapomorphies. The species may be distinguished on th...