Women's Policy Research Articles

Maternal Morbidity and Mortality.

Maternal Morbidity and Mortality.

Prevalence and factors associated with morbidity among postmenopausal women in a rural area in Kozhikode District

Introduction: The focus of women's health researchers and health policy planners has also shifted toward postmenopausal women since recent trends suggest an increase in their number and life expectancy. In general, women have more complex and stressful aging process as men do, as a consequence of hormonal changes that occur during menopausal transition. Objectives: The objective of this study is to estimate the prevalence of postmenopausal symptoms among women in a rural area of Kozhikode and study factors associated with it. Material and Methodology: A cross-sectional study was conducted among postmenopausal women aged 40–55 years in Nanminda panchayat, a rural area in Kozhikode district. This 1-year study was conducted from June 2015 to June 2016, had 245 participants with informed consent. There are 17 wards (17 clusters) in Nanminda panchayat area from which 6 wards were selected. The prevalence of postmenopausal symptoms and associated factors such as sociodemographic profile, morbidity details, diet supplements, anthropometric, clinical, and reproductive components was assessed using the pretested semistructured questionnaire. Results: A total of 245 postmenopausal women were studied. The prevalence of postmenopausal symptoms was found to be 64%. The mean age of the study population was 50.87 years. Age, education, marital status, menopausal age, and duration of menopause were found to be significantly associated with the presence of postmenopausal symptoms. Intake of Calcium supplements was found to be having protective effect against menopausal symptoms. Binary logistic regression revealed that age, educational status, marital status, and dietary intake of calcium supplements are significantly associated with postmenopausal symptoms. Conclusion: Women with early age of menopause and less duration since menopause had more risk of having postmenopausal symptoms. The prevalence of symptoms was found to be less if calcium supplements were taken.

A Commentary on Affirmative Action Policies for Women in India in the Backdrop of International Commitments

Affirmative action is often used as a tool by policymakers to promote women empowerment and gender sensitivity. This paper examines the affirmative action policies for women in India and highlights their impact on uplifting their social and economic status. India is a signatory to various international conventions on women's rights. This paper aims to study India's affirmative action policies to see whether they match with its global commitments under various frameworks like United Nations etc. An analysis of the existing research studies has been done to understand the benefits accrued to women as a result of affirmative action in the areas of education, politics and fiscal budgeting. A holistic picture of this issue has been presented so that relevant conclusions can be drawn about the efficacy of this programme.

Idiosyncratic ambivalence: A three-dimensional interpretative model to understand the non-adhesion of women to breast and cervical cancer screening

Health programs offer screening activities for the early detection of cancer in vulnerable population, but record very low participation rates. The authors have a theoretical framework to investigate the complexity of the phenomenon, in the psychodynamic and ethical dimensions, specific to women. In this study, the authors used semi-structured interviews and interpretative phenomenological analysis to explore the meaning-making processes of women who do not practice breast and cervical cancer prevention in Southern Italy neither in the public health-care system, nor in private health facilities. Three superordinate themes have emerged: taking care of oneself would be to love oneself; difficult contact with a sexual body;at the end, the fate decides . We highlight three levels in the psychism that underlie the behavior of not doing prevention: body-> affects-> thought. Understanding these psychic level mechanisms permits to support women's health policy, reducing costs and promoting health.

Policies for supporting women entrepreneurs in developing countries: the case of Tanzania

PurposeWhile the topic of women's entrepreneurship continues to grow in academic appeal, the policy aspect is one that has received limited scholarly attention, especially in the context of developing countries. To address this gap in scholarship, the purpose of this paper aims to critically explore women's entrepreneurship policy in Tanzania. The research question asks: How are policies designed to encourage and support entrepreneurship in Tanzania gendered, and how might such policies be (re)designed so that they are more relevant to women entrepreneurs in the Tanzanian context? The authors contribute to extant scholarship by: drawing attention to the particular context for women's entrepreneurship in Tanzania; identifying gender biases inherent in current entrepreneurship policies; offering some recommendations for policymakers and identifying areas worthy of future research attention in this area.Design/methodology/approachThe study builds on the Global Women's Enterprise Policy project. The authors apply an adapted reading guide technique to analyse and critique relevant entrepreneurship policy documents in Tanzania. The reading guide examines the category and type of document being analysed, key themes, content, language and imagery, as well as the key policy recommendations being offered and their relevance to women's entrepreneurship in Tanzania and the wider sub-Saharan African region. Completed reading guide templates are then coded and collated into an excel spreadsheet. Findings are discussed and critiqued within a regulative, normative and cultural-cognitive framework.FindingsThe study provides rich and valuable insights into the unique context for women's entrepreneurship in Tanzania, shedding new light on how women's entrepreneurship is supported in a particular region of sub-Saharan Africa. Findings reveal that while current policy acknowledges the important role women play in their communities, especially in terms of their contribution to labour, it is geared more towards small and medium-sized enterprise (SME) development than entrepreneurship; this is despite the fact that entrepreneurship is identified as a means to address sustainable development challenges (notably unemployment and poverty) and expand opportunities for socially disadvantaged groups, especially women. Existing policy is essentially “context neutral” and hence relatively ineffective; the gender focus is lacking and there is a failure to take account of the specific context in which Tanzanian women entrepreneurs have to operate. The authors argue for policies designed to support women's entrepreneurship to be formalised and contextualised in their specific geographical and cultural setting. The “institutional pillars” framework allows us to identify areas where contextualisation of women's entrepreneurship policies could be enhanced.Practical implicationsThe study implies that, to be effective, policies designed to support women's entrepreneurship need to be formalised and contextualised to their specific geographical and cultural setting. Some areas where this might be achieved are identified. Avenues for future research in this area are also suggested.Originality/valueThe value of the paper lies in its focus on Tanzania, and its critique of existing policies from a gender and institutional perspective. It also enhances understanding of the unique context in Tanzania for entrepreneurship.

How Maharashtra Invests for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment: A Gender Budget Analysis

Despite being one of India’s most economically progressive states, Maharashtra’s human development trajectory has been plagued by severe inequalities with pronounced gendered implications. In order to unpack the role of the state in responding to the needs of women, girls and transgender persons through policies and budgets, this article deep dives into the public investment for gender equality and women’s empowerment in Maharashtra. We map policy priorities from the State Policy for Women 2014 to schemes and budgets as reported in the state’s first Gender Budget Statement 2020–2021. The study finds there is a large gap between policy and implementation, and that the investment on women, girls and transgender persons is abysmally inadequate. The analysis points to the lack of holistic investment across critical sectors, absence of a transformative enabling environment and insufficient interventions for the intersectional gender needs of the most vulnerable. JEL Classification: H72, H75, I38, J16

Gender Mainstreaming: Policies at the National and International Level

This paper tries to highlight the existing gender mainstreaming policies and practices at national and international level, to establish a clear vision and make commitments to guide the process of gender mainstreaming and women empowerment to achieve the gender equality, justice and fundamental human rights. The advancement of the rule of law at the national and international levels is thus, essential for the protection of fundamental human rights and freedom. Nepal has an obligation to take an effective action against all such malpractices. Nepal has participated and ratified the gender policies in all Conventions and conferences. To fulfill this very obligation, it has introduced some legal provisions and made an attempt to implement them. Due to this region, Nepal has started to address the gender issues from sixth five year plan to till now. Planned efforts to improve the situation of women began during the Sixth Plan (1981- 1985) but its approach was welfare-driven. The Interim plan (2008-2011) focused the gender responsive budget and allocated the 33 percent reservation in every state structure. The constitution of Nepal 2015, article 11 (5) and (7) compromises the ability of women to independently confer citizenship to her child. Likewise, there are many domestic legal regimes existed here. The fifteenth periodic plan approach paper, 2020 emphasizes the gender equivalence in local level. Government policies are stated with high priorities for gender main streaming policies. The experience shows that ensuring the provisions of equal rights in the constitution is important, but at the same time, proper implementation of those provisions is equally important to balance the theoretical and practical gap of gender and development. The review follows the major discourses that influenced the gender mainstreaming agenda in the form of statements in women's movements, policy documents, laws, press materials, and experiential reflection and everyday narratives captured through existing research.

Does menstrual hygiene management and water, sanitation, and hygiene predict reproductive tract infections among reproductive women in urban areas in Ethiopia?

Reproductive tract infections (RTIs) are a public health concern in Ethiopia. However, the relationship between menstrual hygiene management (MHM) and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) factors to RTIs have not been well addressed. A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted from January to March 2019 among 602 systematically selected reproductive-age women aged 15-49 years in Dessie City. Data were collected using a questionnaire and a direct observation checklist. RTIs were identified by the presence during one year before data collection of one or more signs of vaginal discharge, itching/irritation or ulcers/lesions around the vulva, pain during urination and sexual intercourse, and lower abdominal pain and lower back pain. Data were analyzed using multivariable logistic regression analysis with 95%CI (confidence interval). The self-reported prevalence of RTIs was 11.0%(95%CI:8.5-13.7%) during one year prior to the survey. The most commonly reported symptoms of RTI were burning micturition (9.1%) and vaginal discharge (6.1%). Three-fourths 443(75.0%) of households used traditional pit latrines and the majority of the study participants 527(89.2%) did not meet the basic access requirement of 20 liters of water per capita per day. The majority 562(95.1%) of the study participants did not have multiple sexual partners during the last year and 97.8% did not practiced sexual intercourse during menstruation. The most common type of blood-absorbent material used was a sanitary pad 497(84.8%) followed by cloth 89(15.2%). Factors significantly associated with RTIs were using unclean latrines (AOR: 4.20; 95%CI:2.00-8.80), not washing hands with soap before touching the genital area (AOR: 3.94; 95%CI:1.49-10.45), history of symptoms of RTIs in the past year (AOR: 5.88; 95%CI:2.30-14.98), having multiple sexual partners in the past year (AOR: 4.46; 95%CI:1.59-12.53), changing absorbent material only once per day (AOR: 8.99; 95%CI:4.51-17.92), and washing the genital area only once per day during menstruation (AOR: 5.76; 95%CI:2.07-16.05). The self-reported prevalence of RTI showed that one women experienced RTI among ten reproductive-age women. Designing a women's health policy that focuses on ensuring availability of WASH facilities and improving MHM at the community level is key for sustainably preventing RTIs.

Gendered Accountability: When and Why Do Women's Policy Priorities Get Implemented?

The past two decades have seen dramatic increases in women occupying positions of political power. Such developments have been welcomed as a means of achieving better outcomes for women in their everyday lives. We interrogate this proposition, developing a gendered accountability framework to the delineate conditions under which female representation should have its desired effects. Our empirical analysis applies this framework to sub-Saharan Africa, home to the largest increase in women's political representation in recent years. We find that having more women in the legislature is robustly associated with reduced infant and child mortality as well as greater spending on health. The effect on infant mortality is magnified when women are more active in civil society, and constrained to countries that have gender quotas and a proportional electoral system. We do not, however, find consistent evidence that maternal mortality and access to clean water respond to female representation.

Beyond the Turtle Approach: Women in the Public Sector

AbstractEquity issues persist in defining public sector women as in need of accommodation, including during times of child‐rearing or caregiving. The authors argue instead that viewing the fullness of a woman's existence should empower others to see broad life experiences as a benefit to be fostered. Public service organizations and the academy should build policies and systems that recognize this value and work to cultivate, rather than accommodate. While women have historically taken the turtle approach—that is, keep your head down—the #MeToo movement has morphed women into strong bison, standing shoulder to shoulder. The authors advocate for more inclusive and supportive mentoring relationships to move into a new era—the pigeon era. In public administration, this manifests as providing holistic support and intentional mentorships throughout the arc of women's careers and institutional policy changes that support the unique value of women in the public sector and the academy.

Implementing Inclusion: Gender Quotas, Inequality, and Backlash in Kenya

AbstractExtensive research has affirmed the potential of gender quotas to advance women's political inclusion. When Kenya's gender quota took effect after a new constitution was promulgated in 2010, women were elected to the highest number of seats in the country's history. In this article, we investigate how the process of implementing the quota has shaped Kenyan women's power more broadly. Drawing on more than 80 interviews and 24 focus groups with 140 participants, we affirm and refine the literature on quotas by making two conceptual contributions: (1) quota design can inadvertently create new inequalities among women in government, and (2) women's entry into previously male-dominated spaces can be met with patriarchal backlash, amplifying gender oppression. Using the ongoing process of quota implementation in Kenya as a case to theoretically question inclusionary efforts to empower women more generally, our analysis highlights the challenges for implementing women's rights laws and policies and the need for women's rights activists to prioritize a parallel bottom-up process of transforming gendered power relations alongside top-down institutional efforts.

Dual-role Women in Selangor: Work-family Conflict and its Impact on Emotional Well-being

In this era of urbanization, women have to play roles equal to men especially in making a living to support their families while at the same time, they have to perform their responsibilities as mothers and wives. Subsequently, this situation affects the functioning of families these days. As a result, they are unable to spend enough time with their families due to working overtime or having to take their works home. This article explores work-family conflicts experienced by dual-role women in Selangor and assesses the impacts on their emotional well-being. Eleven (11) informants around Selangor were interviewed thoroughly using semi-structured interview questions. The informants were selected through purposive sampling method. Then, the data were analyzed using the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis procedure. Results of the analysis showed that work-family conflict among women in the workplace was triggered by career challenges, lack of family time, and unsupportive spouse. The findings of this study can serve as guidelines and references to improve and upgrade the National Women's Policy. The findings of this study should also be noted by the Department of Labor, Human Resources Division, Training Unit, and others in drafting programs and formulating policies for married female employees.

Development and validation of a claims-based measure of abortion services.

Data on abortion services are critical for monitoring trends in access and utilization, evaluating policies, and examining a wide range of research questions. Accurate and timely data, however, can be difficult to obtain for abortion services. Oregon is one of several states that use state funds to finance abortion services in their Medicaid programmes. Oregon's Medicaid programme contracts with managed care plans that receive global budgets to provide care. Abortion services, however, must be billed directly to the state through fee-for-service (FFS) billing to ensure that federal funds are not used. In this study, we identify possible abortions using Medicaid insurance claims data from Oregon and categorize identified abortions as high, medium, or low confidence according to convergent validity analysis of FFS billing. We used individually linked Medicaid eligibility and claims data from women ages 15 to 44 enrolled in Oregon's Medicaid programme from 2008 to 2013. Abortion-related Medicaid claims were identified and categorized based on diagnosis, procedure, and drug codes. These categories were assessed for convergent validity by examining FFS billing for possible abortions to women enrolled in managed care plans. In total, 23 763 possible abortions obtained by 18 518 women were classified with high (n = 21 450), medium (n = 562), and low (n = 1751) confidence. Among managed care abortions, more than 99% of high confidence abortions were billed on an FFS basis compared with 72% of medium confidence and <1% of low confidence abortions. The majority of high confidence abortions were to urban-residing (89%) white (73%) women. Research on abortion services using insurance claims has important implications for women's health care and public health policy. A high-quality claims-based measure can facilitate monitoring the provision of abortion services within health systems and evaluation of initiatives to increase equitable abortion access.

Critical discourse analysis of policies impacting the intersection of health and experiences of intimate partner violence for rural women in Ontario, Canada.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) impacts approximately one quarter of Canadian women, and services provided to support women are heavily influenced by policy. Policy sets the stage and tone for action in all sectors. To date, there have been no critical discourse analyses examining how provincial, hospital, and women's shelter policies intersect and impact women in rural communities. A critical discourse analysis using a case study of one rural community in south-western Ontario was undertaken by a multisectoral team of researchers using a critical, feminist, intersectional lens. The selected policies were (1) Domestic Violence Action Plan for Ontario (ODVAP), (2) the rural women's shelter policy, and (3) the hospital policy. The internal analysis of the policies revealed that ODVAP focused on societal solutions to violence requiring cross-sectoral cooperation with a focus on marginalized populations, whereas the rural shelter policy focused on creating a philosophical orientation to underpin their work with clients. There was no formal hospital policy related to the provision of services for women who have experienced violence. The policies revealed a disconnect between the stated goals and the specifics concerning how the policies would come together to achieve these goals. Obstacles such as having no clear link for how ODVAP and the shelter policy would work together, idealization of training but a lack of specificity on what training would be useful, and the requirement of affirmative action on the part of women to engage with services functioned as a means to maintain the status quo, that is, working in a siloed approach to care. Integrative systems are important for women who have experienced IPV given the wide range of health, social, and economic consequences of violence. Policy alignment is important for women who have experienced or are experiencing IPV, particularly in rural contexts where services are fraught with additional barriers.

Introduction to the special issue: Women's enterprise international policy and practice: honoring the legacy of Julie Weeks

Julie R. Weeks was a leading advocate for women’s enterprise, an internationally renowned expert in women’s enterprise policy and a great friend to women’s enterprise researchers across the globe. A double graduate of the University of Michigan, Julie used her skills in research, public policy, and communications to advocate for women’s enterprise and to support researchers, policymakers and practitioners in the field. In a career spanning more than thirty years, Julie was personally responsible for much of the research-based information on the state of women business owners and their enterprises in the United States.

Causes of failure among Malaysian female entrepreneurs

PurposeThis paper aims to explore the specific causes of failure among Malaysian female entrepreneurs who were provided with financial services by the microfinance institution: Amanah Ikhtiar Malaysia (AIM) to start up their own businesses.Design/methodology/approachThis paper adopts a qualitative-based case study design approach, with data collected from a total of 18 female entrepreneurs who had failed to develop their businesses. In-depth personal interviews were conducted, coupled with personal observation via purposive cum snowball sampling.FindingsThematic analysis revealed a pattern-based outcome which discloses a variety of causes affecting the failure of Malaysian female entrepreneurship. These causes ranged from inter-related external factors which were perceived as beyond their control, such as personal life events, intensive competition and loan inflexibility to internal causes, which were related to lack of resources, poor financial management and personal dissatisfaction with their own business performance.Research limitations/implicationsThe findings of this study provide valuable information for Malaysian economic policymakers in how to practically address the objectives of the National Women's Policy (NPW) and improve the innovative quality of their products and services. A thorough understanding of the specific obstacles facing female entrepreneurs in Malaysia is essential if policymakers are to improve opportunity exploitation efficiency and assist in mitigating the external and internal causes of business failure among Malaysian females.Originality/valueStudies in this field have demonstrated that most new “start-ups” fail within three years of their establishment. While determinist, emotive and voluntarist theories can often provide an adequate explanation for the causes of business failure, it is clear that no single factor is usually responsible. Rather, multiple interrelated factors are found to be at play. This study, therefore, provides an integrative model for causes of business failure among small-business female entrepreneurs. It also represents one of only a few such studies in the literature and, to the best of knowledge at the time of writing, is the first such study that used an integrative approach to explain the causes of business failure in the Malaysian context.

Age of first pregnancy in Brazil: data from the national health survey

Introduction: The fertility pattern of Brazilian population has changed considerably in the last decades. Socioeconomic and cultural inequalities can influence the age of the first gestation, and the identification of these inequalities is a fundamental aspect of the monitoring and evaluation of women's health care policies.&#x0D; Objective: To analyze the age of women in their first gestation and the related factors in Brazil.&#x0D; Methods: A cross-sectional study using data from the National Health Survey 2013, analyzing women aged 18 to 49 years and their age in the first gestation, categorized by sociodemographic variables.&#x0D; Results: The North Region presented the highest percentage of pregnancy for the stratum of 10 to 14 years. The first pregnancy at the age of 15 to 19 years had the highest percentages for all regions, with a significant difference between the North and Southeast. The Southeast region obtained the highest percentage of the first pregnancy at the age of 30 to 39 years. The first pregnancy at the age of 15 to 19 years was significantly higher among the separated women; without instruction; and who live in rural areas. The first pregnancy of 10 to 14 was associated with the highest number of births that women will have throughout their lives, with a higher prevalence of 5 to 9 births.&#x0D; Conclusions: In Brazil, a large proportion of first pregnancies still occur in adolescence. The states of the northern region stand out with lower average ages in the first pregnancy, and this event is related to the worst socioeconomic conditions.

A Study on the Regional Women's Policy Research Institutes in Korea

여성관련 정책의 방향이 변화하고 있으며 우리나라에서도 이를 전담하기 위해서 2000년대 중앙정부내에 여성관련 부처가 신설되었다. 그리고 여성에 대한 인식의 변화와 지방자치 시대의 개막으로 광역자치단체에 여성정책관련 전문연구기관도 설치되었다. 이에 따라 지역 차원의 여성정책에 대한 개발과 집행 등이 이루어지고 있다. 여성정책관련 전문연구기관은 지역의 특성에 맞추어 많은 정책개발과 교육사업을 수행하고 있으나 아직은 다른 시·도 연구기관과의 차별성이 미약하다. 또한, 한 국가의 여성정책은 중앙과 지방차원간, 그리고 지역 내의 협력적 거버넌스 하에 추진되는 것이 바람직하고 이를 통해 시너지 효과가 나타날 수 있다. 그러나 여전히 수직적 관계가 더 강하게 나타나고 있으며 지방 내에서도 협력적 네트워크정도에 국한되어 있어 보다 폭넓은 거버넌스를 구축하고 확대하는 것이 필요하다.

FORMAÇÃO DOCENTE E O ENFRENTAMENTO DA VIOLÊNCIA DOMÉSTICA

O artigo apresenta a experiência do município de Santo André/SP com a formação de professoras(es) para as questões de gênero, como parte da estratégia de enfrentamento da violência doméstica e do feminicídio. Parte do pressuposto de que o fenômeno da violência doméstica é resultado de um longo processo histórico marcado pelo patriarcado. O trabalho foi desenvolvido pela Secretaria de Políticas para Mulheres de Santo André em parceria com a Secretaria de Educação, através da adesão à campanha “Quem Ama Abraça, fazendo escola”. Dentre as ações, foi realizado curso de extensão universitária com estágio em vários equipamentos de atendimento à mulher vítima de violência. O referencial teórico contou com os estudos feministas e de gênero. Os resultados demonstram que, no período de realização da campanha, o Centro de Referência da Mulher de Santo André registrou aumento no número de atendimentos às mulheres, que procuravam orientações para sair do ciclo da violência e/ou solicitavam abrigo e medidas protetivas. Nas escolas observou-se discussões mais sistemáticas sobre a temática, em que os estereótipos de gênero e as práticas sexistas foram problematizadas. Conclui que é urgente criar, nas escolas, espaços de reflexão como forma de enfrentamento dessa violência que machuca e deixa marcas em crianças, jovens e adultas(os).&#x0D; Recebido em: 14/05/2019Aprovado em: 20/07/2019

Financial inclusion and intimate partner violence: What does the evidence suggest?

Financial inclusion is an area of growing global interest in women’s empowerment policy and programming. While increased economic autonomy may be expected to reduce the prevalence of intimate partner violence, the mechanisms and contexts through which this relationship manifests are not well understood. This analysis aims to assess the relationship between women’s financial inclusion and recent intimate partner violence using nationally-representative data from 112 countries worldwide. Levels of both financial inclusion and recent intimate partner violence varied substantially across countries (ranging from 2–100%, and 1–46%, respectively), and across regions. In multivariate global analyses, increased levels of women’s financial inclusion were associated with lower levels of recent intimate partner violence after accounting for asset-based enablers of economic autonomy and gender norms; this relationship was lost upon the inclusion of measures of national context (i.e., development and fragility). These results underscore that the relationship between financial inclusion and recent intimate partner violence is complex, follows many pathways, and is affected by context. In low and middle income countries, asset-based enablers of economic autonomy, gender norms and national context explained much of the relationship between financial inclusion and recent intimate partner violence. In those low and middle income countries with high levels of controlling behavior by male spouses, financial inclusion was associated with higher levels of recent intimate partner violence. These findings further suggest that initiatives that aim to prevent intimate partner violence by way of increased economic autonomy may be ineffective in the absence of broader social change and support, and indeed, as seen in countries with higher levels of men’s controlling behavior, backlash may increase the risk of violence. Efforts to improve women’s financial inclusion need to recognize that its relationship with intimate partner violence is complex, and that it requires an enabling environment supportive of women’s rights and autonomy.