Wolf Distribution Research Articles

Canid hybridization: contemporary evolution in human‐modified landscapes

Contemporary evolution through human-induced hybridization occurs throughout the taxonomic range. Formerly allopatric species appear especially susceptible to hybridization. Consequently, hybridization is expected to be more common in regions with recent sympatry owing to human activity than in areas of historical range overlap. Coyotes (Canis latrans) and gray wolves (C. lupus) are historically sympatric in western North America. Following European settlement gray wolf range contracted, whereas coyote range expanded to include eastern North America. Furthermore, wolves with New World (NW) mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotypes now extend from Manitoba to Québec in Canada and hybridize with gray wolves and coyotes. Using mtDNA and 12 microsatellite markers, we evaluated levels of wolf-coyote hybridization in regions where coyotes were present (the Canadian Prairies, n = 109 samples) and absent historically (Québec, n = 154). Wolves with NW mtDNA extended from central Saskatchewan (51°N, 69°W) to northeastern Québec (54°N, 108°W). On the Prairies, 6.3% of coyotes and 9.2% of wolves had genetic profiles suggesting wolf-coyote hybridization. In contrast, 12.6% of coyotes and 37.4% of wolves in Québec had profiles indicating hybrid origin. Wolves with NW and Old World (C. lupus) mtDNA appear to form integrated populations in both regions. Our results suggest that hybridization is more frequent in historically allopatric populations. Range shifts, now expected across taxa following climate change and other human influence on the environment, might therefore promote contemporary evolution by hybridization.

Consensus on Criteria for Potential Areas for Wolf Reintroduction in Mexico

Given the conflict with human interests that in many cases results in the extirpation of large carnivores, acceptance of their reintroduction is a considerable challenge. By the 1980s Mexican wolves (Canis lupus) were extinct in the wild. In 1998 a population was reintroduced in the Blue Range Mountains of New Mexico (U.S.A.). Efforts to reintroduce the species in Mexico have been ongoing since the late 1980s. Four teams working independently identified 6 areas in northern Mexico in the historic range of Mexican wolves, where reintroductions could potentially be successful. Each team used different methods and criteria to identify the areas, which makes it difficult to prioritize among these areas. Therefore, members of the different teams worked together to devise criteria for use in identifying priority areas. They identified areas with high, intermediate, and low potential levels of conflict between wolves and humans. Areas with low potential conflict had larger buffers (i.e., distance from human settlement to areas suitable for wolves) around human settlements than high- and intermediate-conflict areas and thus were thought most appropriate for the first reintroduction. High-conflict areas contained habitat associated with wolf presence, but were closer to human activity. The first reintroduction of Mexican wolves to Mexico occurred in October 2011 in one of the identified low-conflict areas. The identification of suitable areas for reintroduction represents a crucial step in the process toward the restoration of large carnivores. Choice of the first reintroduction area can determine whether the reintroduction is successful or fails. A failure may preclude future reintroduction efforts in a region or country.

Assessing wolves and cougars as conservation surrogates

AbstractLarge carnivores have been posited as potential conservation surrogates to inform the design and prioritization of conservation planning. We show that wolves Canis lupus and cougars Puma concolor may have potential to serve as a surrogate suite for conserving landscape heterogeneity, hypothesized to be a determinant of biodiversity in some landscapes. We examined habitat and landscape features associated with the spatial distribution of wolf‐ and cougar‐killed prey in the basin of the North Fork of the Flathead River in Montana. The spatial distribution of wolf‐killed prey was driven largely by cover type, whereas physiographic characteristics were the primary driver of the distribution of cougar‐killed prey. Spatial templates, generated using >0.66 probability quantiles from spatially explicit models of kill site distribution, estimated over three times as much high‐quality habitat for wolves (1005 km2) than for cougars (381 km2). While there were only minor differences in the proportional representation of land cover types between the wolf and cougar templates, 40% of the cougar template fell outside the wolf template, and the former contained over three times more rugged terrain than the latter. The use of a combined wolf–cougar spatial template resulted in a 15% increase in total area and 91% increase in the amount of rugged terrain identified. Based on our models, the advantage of using both wolves and cougars as a focal suite in north‐west Montana is the ability to identify a greater area of high‐quality habitat, and capture landscape heterogeneity that may be important to conserving biodiversity.

Modeling biodiversity benefits and external costs from a keystone predator reintroduction policy

In this paper, an economic model was constructed to determine the optimal wolf population and distribution across the Northern Rocky Mountains. Both ecological and economic concepts were incorporated in an implicitly spatial social welfare maximization problem. This interdisciplinary model relies on multiple data sources, including current wolf population and distribution information, opportunity cost to local landowners, and contingent valuation studies to determine willingness-to-pay for wolves. Economic models tend to externalize ecological concerns and ecological models often omit the complex human dimensions of conservation policy. Accordingly, this model can serve as a guide for integrating best practices from both fields. The model presented here is sufficiently general to apply to wolves in other ecosystems and to other highly interacting species such as beavers and bison. The Northern Rocky Mountain wolf was used as an example of how this economic model works, but this model can be applied far more broadly.

Is science in danger of sanctifying the wolf?

Historically the wolf (Canis lupus) was hated and extirpated from most of the contiguous United States. The federal Endangered Species Act fostered wolf protection and reintroduction which improved the species’ image. Wolf populations reached biological recovery in the Northern Rocky Mountains and upper Midwest, and the animal has been delisted from the Endangered Species List in those areas. Numerous studies in National Parks suggest that wolves, through trophic cascades, have caused ecosystems to change in ways many people consider positive. Several studies have been conducted in Yellowstone National Park where wolf interactions with their prey, primarily elk (Cervus elaphus), are thought to have caused reduction of numbers or changes in movements and behavior. Some workers consider the latter changes to have led to a behaviorally-mediated trophic cascade. Either the elk reduction or the behavioral changes are hypothesized to have fostered growth in browse, primarily willows (Salix spp.) and aspen (Populus spp.), and that growth has resulted in increased beavers (Castor Canadensis), songbirds, and hydrologic changes. The wolf’s image thus has gained an iconic cachet. However, later research challenges several earlier studies’ findings such that earlier conclusions are now controversial, especially those related to causes of browse regrowth. In any case, any such cascading effects of wolves found in National Parks would have little relevance to most of the wolf range because of overriding anthropogenic influences there on wolves, prey, vegetation, and other parts of the food web. The wolf is neither a saint nor a sinner except to those who want to make it so.

Insights into wolf presence in human‐dominated landscapes: the relative role of food availability, humans and landscape attributes

AbstractAim Understanding which human or environmental factors interact to enable or to limit the occurrence and persistence of large carnivores in human‐dominated landscapes is an important issue for their effective conservation, especially under the current scenario of global change where most of their former habitat is being transformed by humans.Location NW Iberian Peninsula.Methods We combine data on the distribution of Iberian wolves (Canis lupus signatus) living in a human‐dominated landscape in NW Spain and variation and partitioning methods to investigate the relative importance of three groups of predictors: food availability, humans and landscape attributes – each group expected to have unequal effects on wolf reproduction and survival – and their interactions on the occurrence of this species.Results We found that the group of predictors related with landscape attributes (altitude, roughness and refuge) strongly determined wolf occurrence, followed by humans and food availability. Variance partitioning analysis revealed that the three most important components determining wolf occurrence were related with landscape attributes: (1) the joint effects of the three predictor groups, (2) the joint effect of humans and landscape attributes and (3) the pure effect of landscape attributes. Altitude had the main independent contribution to explain the probability of wolf occurrence.Main conclusions In human‐dominated landscapes, the occurrence of wolves is the result of a complex interaction among several environmental and human factors. Our results suggest that the characteristics of the landscape (spatial context) – factors associated with the security of wolves facilitating that animals go unnoticed by humans, wolf movements, dispersal events and short‐time colonization – become more important in human‐dominated landscapes and may have played a key role in the occurrence and persistence of this species throughout decades modulating the relationship between humans and wolf distribution.

Invasion of eastern Greenland by the high arctic wolf Canis lupus arctos

AbstractThe high arctic wolf Canis lupus arctos was exterminated from eastern Greenland during the 1930s by commercial hunters and was considered absent for 40 years. In this study, I examined the recolonisation of east Greenland by wolves from north Greenland through an invasion that began in 1979. The invasion successfully led to the establishment of a new population, because a wolf pair arrived into the core historical wolf range followed by one or two wolves during the next four years. Weight of evidence suggested that the invaders arrived into east Greenland through unintentional, human‐mediated jump dispersal. I present two cases of long‐distance dispersals by lone wolves following military sled patrols in northern Greenland. Wolves had likely failed to establish a viable population in east Greenland for 40 years for the following reasons: 1) a low propagule pressure, 2) invasions were high risk, occurring through vast areas of the lowest, large ungulate prey biomass reported for wolves in North America, and 3) only singletons made it into eastern Greenland.

Attitudes to Wolves and Wolf Policy Among Ojibwe Tribal Members and Non-tribal Residents of Wisconsin's Wolf Range

Gray wolf (Canis lupus) policy is dynamic and involves multiple stakeholders. Attitudinal surveys have historically measured stakeholder attitudes, although Native American views have rarely been studied systematically. We sent a mail-back questionnaire to members of the Bad River Band of the Lake Superior Tribe of Chippewa Indians (Ojibwe) to assess attitudes toward wolves and Wisconsin wolf policy. We compared their responses to a sample of non-tribal residents of Wisconsin's wolf range. Tribal respondents held significantly more positive attitudes toward wolves, were more supportive of protective policy, and were less supportive of a public wolf harvest than non-tribal respondents. Multivariate analyses revealed several demographic factors associated with observed differences in attitudes; the most frequent and strongest predictor was whether or not a respondent was a tribal member. Ojibwe perspectives deserve attention in future wolf policy and may influence a possible wolf harvest, especially given Ojibwe treaty rights in the Great Lakes region.

Movements of wolves at the northern extreme of the species' range, including during four months of darkness.

Information about wolf (Canis lupus) movements anywhere near the northern extreme of the species' range in the High Arctic (>75°N latitude) are lacking. There, wolves prey primarily on muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) and must survive 4 months of 24 hr/day winter darkness and temperatures reaching −53 C. The extent to which wolves remain active and prey on muskoxen during the dark period are unknown, for the closest area where information is available about winter wolf movements is >2,250 km south. We studied a pack of ≥20 wolves on Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, Canada (80°N latitude) from July 2009 through mid-April 2010 by collaring a lead wolf with a Global Positioning System (GPS)/Argos radio collar. The collar recorded the wolf's precise locations at 6:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m. daily and transmitted the locations by satellite to our email. Straight-line distances between consecutive 12-hr locations varied between 0 and 76 km. Mean (SE) linear distance between consecutive locations (n = 554) was 11 (0.5) km. Total minimum distance traveled was 5,979 km, and total area covered was 6,640 km2, the largest wolf range reported. The wolf and presumably his pack once made a 263-km (straight-line distance) foray to the southeast during 19–28 January 2010, returning 29 January to 1 February at an average of 41 km/day straight-line distances between 12-hr locations. This study produced the first detailed movement information about any large mammal in the High Arctic, and the average movements during the dark period did not differ from those afterwards. Wolf movements during the dark period in the highest latitudes match those of the other seasons and generally those of wolves in lower latitudes, and, at least with the gross movements measurable by our methods, the 4-month period without direct sunlight produced little change in movements.

Hunters as Stewards of Wolves in Wisconsin and the Northern Rocky Mountains, USA

Regulated hunting may help conserve wildlife. Advocates argue hunters will champion conservation and generate revenue for management, regulation will promote sustained, stable wildlife populations, and conflicts with game species will diminish. Applying this notion to predators such as the wolf presents difficulties because of widespread human intolerance for the species. We assessed potential hunter stewardship of wolves by measuring attitudes of hunters and nonhunters in three surveys spanning 2001–2007 among 2,320 residents of four states in wolf range. Two U.S. states implemented hunting and several more are contemplating it, all as part of long-term wolf conservation. At the time of our surveys, majorities supported hypothetical wolf hunting depending on the justifications used. Likely wolf hunters showed little inclination to conserve wolves. However some predict such attitudes might change if they were allowed to hunt wolves.

Insular and disjunct distribution of the Arctic wolf in Greenland, 1978–1998

Little research has been conducted on the spatial and temporal distribution of wolves in the High Arctic, and the processes that influence distributional patterns are not well understood. The present study addressed this information void in north and east Greenland by determining bi-seasonal distribution patterns and core areas based upon 303 sightings of wolves or their tracks during 1978–1998. The data suggested that this wolf population were predominantly distributed in semi-isolated patches in an insular and disjunct distribution. Evidence of wolf occurrence in some areas was so irregular that wolves should be considered absent in most years. Where such areas were clustered over several hundreds of kilometers, they collectively constituted areas of general wolf absence that could be considered gaps in distribution. There was no evidence that this population functioned in a mosaic of closely, interlocking pack territories similar to those reported in lower latitudes. The observed distributional pattern likely reflected the exceptionally impoverished and fragmented polar desert and semi-desert habitat that compelled wolves to adopt differing spatial distribution patterns relative to wolves in temperate areas. The broader scientific significance of this study is that, even in the most remote, vast, and uninhabited regions, it is possible to produce meaningful results on distributional patterns of rare, terrestrial carnivores that can serve as foundation for the next generation of testable hypotheses.

Population, distribution and food composition of wolves (Canis lupus) at Saihanwula Nature Reserve, Inner Mongolia

To provide initial value for population restoration and management of wolves (Canis lupus) in the wild, line transect survey and fecal analysis method were used to study the population ecology of wolf at Saihanwula National Nature Reserve, Inner Mongolia. The results revealed that the population number was at least seven within the reserve and population density was 4.18+/-2.88 individual per 100 km2. The wolf population was mainly distributed in Shengshan and Qinyunshan core areas; active sites appeared mostly along mountain ridges, roads and valleys at Shengshan and mountain ridges at Qinyunshan. Hare (Lepus capensis) and plants occurred frequently in the food composition of wolf scats. Food types varied between years but not seasons (Winter-Spring and Summer-Autumn).

Anthropogenic barriers to the distribution of the Grey Wolf (Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758) in the Beydağları Mountains area, Turkey

Field observations, interviews with local people and Forestry Department workers and camera trapping were used to determine the status of wolves in the Beydağları Mountains and surroundings. Following interview data, camera traps were placed at 17 stations between 1100 and 1900 m a.s.l. in Çığlıkara Nature Protected Area (NPA) and were maintained for 1031 camera days, from 29 May to 25 September 2009. Wolf pictures were taken during the time period of 20:00 and 06:00 hours and at the altitude of 1600–1800 m a.s.l. The population density of wolves was 0.9 individual per 100 km2 in the trapping polygon, with a buffer area of 445.5 km2 calculated using Geographic Information System (GIS). Çığlıkara NPA regularly hosts a wolf population in the Beydağları region due to anthropogenic barriers, topological barriers (high mountain ranges) and habitat preferences. The other areas of the Beydağları region have human structures such as villages, roads, farmland, high plateau houses, etc, that negatively affect the wolf distribution pattern.

THE ROLE OF PREDATION IN DISEASE CONTROL: A COMPARISON OF SELECTIVE AND NONSELECTIVE REMOVAL ON PRION DISEASE DYNAMICS IN DEER

Effective measures for controlling chronic wasting disease (CWD), a contagious prion disease of cervids, remain elusive. We review theoretic relationships between predation and host-parasite dynamics and describe a mathematical model to evaluate the potential influence of random removal through harvest or culling and selective predation by wolves (Canis lupus) upon CWD dynamics in deer (Odocoileus spp.) populations. Imposing nonselective mortality representing a 15% annual harvest or cull 51 yr after CWD introduction lowered both deer population size and steady state CWD. Selective (4×) mortality at the same 15% predation rate caused a more modest reduction in deer population size accompanied by a relatively rapid decline in CWD prevalence and elimination of the disease from a closed population. The impacts of selective predation on epidemic dynamics were sensitive to assumptions on parameter estimates; however, within expected ranges, the results of selective predation were consistent and robust. We suggest that as CWD distribution and wolf range overlap in the future, wolf predation may suppress disease emergence or limit prevalence.

Effects of Wolves on Elk and Cattle Behaviors: Implications for Livestock Production and Wolf Conservation

BackgroundIn many areas, livestock are grazed within wolf (Canis lupus) range. Predation and harassment of livestock by wolves creates conflict and is a significant challenge for wolf conservation. Wild prey, such as elk (Cervus elaphus), perform anti-predator behaviors. Artificial selection of cattle (Bos taurus) might have resulted in attenuation or absence of anti-predator responses, or in erratic and inconsistent responses. Regardless, such responses might have implications on stress and fitness.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe compared elk and cattle anti-predator responses to wolves in southwest Alberta, Canada within home ranges and livestock pastures, respectively. We deployed satellite- and GPS-telemetry collars on wolves, elk, and cattle (n = 16, 10 and 78, respectively) and measured seven prey response variables during periods of wolf presence and absence (speed, path sinuosity, time spent head-up, distance to neighboring animals, terrain ruggedness, slope and distance to forest). During independent periods of wolf presence (n = 72), individual elk increased path sinuosity (Z = −2.720, P = 0.007) and used more rugged terrain (Z = −2.856, P = 0.004) and steeper slopes (Z = −3.065, P = 0.002). For cattle, individual as well as group behavioral analyses were feasible and these indicated increased path sinuosity (Z = −2.720, P = 0.007) and decreased distance to neighbors (Z = −2.551, P = 0.011). In addition, cattle groups showed a number of behavioral changes concomitant to wolf visits, with variable direction in changes.Conclusions/SignificanceOur results suggest both elk and cattle modify their behavior in relation to wolf presence, with potential energetic costs. Our study does not allow evaluating the efficacy of anti-predator behaviors, but indicates that artificial selection did not result in their absence in cattle. The costs of wolf predation on livestock are often compensated considering just the market value of the animal killed. However, society might consider refunding some additional costs (e.g., weight loss and reduced reproduction) that might be associated with the changes in cattle behaviors that we documented.

Competition between domestic dogs and Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia

AbstractThe potential effects of the domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) on the Endangered Ethiopian wolf (Canis simensis) through exploitative and interference competition were studied in the Web Valley of Bale Mountains national park between November 2001 and February 2003. All dogs were owned in the study area and no feral dogs were reported or observed during the research period. The diet of domestic dogs was dominated by barley husks and human faeces which contributed 45% and 20.7% of the total 382 meals observed during focal watch observations. Analysis of dog faeces provided similar results with barley husks, human faeces and animal carcasses occurring in 86.8%, 21.4% and 19.4% of the 1200 faecal samples analysed. Both focal watch and faecal analyses revealed that rodents contributed only a very small proportion of the diet of dogs accounting for only 4.2% of the focal watch and 2.8% of the faecal analysis of roaming dogs. As Ethiopian wolves fed almost exclusively on rodent year round, no significant exploitative competition between dogs and wolves were assessed. Only small proportion of the domestic dogs roamed in the Ethiopian wolf range and interference competition did not appear to be a serious threat for the Ethiopian wolf.

Noninvasive monitoring of wolves at the edge of their distribution and the cost of their conservation

AbstractLarge predators are recolonizing areas in industrialized countries, where they have been absent for decades or centuries. As they reach these areas, the predators often encounter unwary livestock and unprepared keepers, which translates into large economic costs. The cost per individual may have important repercussions on the conservation and management of large predators. During the years 2003–2004, we collected 136 feces preliminarily identified as belonging to gray wolves Canis lupus along the north‐eastern limit of the wolf range in the Iberia peninsula (Basque Country, Spain). Genetic analyses allowed us to identify the species of origin in 86 cases: 31 corresponded to wolves, two to red foxes Vulpes vulpes and 53 to dogs Canis familiaris. Among the wolves, we identified 16 different individuals. We estimated the cost of conserving wolves to be >€3000 per wolf per year, based on the cost of damage compensation and prevention during the 2003–2004 period. However, most of the wolf feces contained wild prey whereas dog feces contained mostly remains of domestic animals. This finding suggests that uncontrolled dogs could be responsible for some of the attacks on livestock, contributing to negative public attitudes toward wolf conservation and increasing its cost.

Are inland wolf–ungulate systems influenced by marine subsidies of Pacific salmon?

Wolves (Canis lupus) in North America are considered obligate predators of ungulates with other food resources playing little role in wolf population dynamics or wolf prey relations. However, spawning Pacific salmon (Oncorhyncus spp.) are common throughout wolf range in northwestern North America and may provide a marine subsidy affecting inland wolf-ungulate food webs far from the coast. We conducted stable-isotope analyses for nitrogen and carbon to evaluate the contribution of salmon to diets of wolves in Denali National Park and Preserve, 1200 river-km from tidewater in interior Alaska, USA. We analyzed bone collagen from 73 wolves equipped with radio collars during 1986-2002 and evaluated estimates of salmon in their diets relative to the availability of salmon and ungulates within their home ranges. We compared wolf densities and ungulate:wolf ratios among regions with differing salmon and ungulate availability to assess subsidizing effects of salmon on these wolf-ungulate systems. Wolves in the northwestern flats of the study area had access to spawning salmon but low ungulate availability and consumed more salmon (17% +/- 7% [mean +/- SD]) than in upland regions, where ungulates were sixfold more abundant and wolves did or did not have salmon spawning areas within their home ranges (8% +/- 6% and 3% +/- 3%, respectively). Wolves were only 17% less abundant on the northwestern flats compared to the remainder of the study area, even though ungulate densities were 78% lower. We estimated that biomass from fall runs of chum (O. keta) and coho (O. kisutch) salmon on the northwestern flats was comparable to the ungulate biomass there, and the contribution of salmon to wolf diets was similar to estimates reported for coastal wolves in southeast Alaska. Given the ubiquitous consumption of salmon by wolves on the northwestern flats and the abundance of salmon there, we conclude that wolf numbers in this region were enhanced by the allochthonous subsidy provided by salmon and discuss implications for wolf-ungulate relations.

Dynamic of Distribution and Number of Gray Wolf (Canis Lupus L.) During Ten Year Period in Bulgaria

ABSTRACTAfter 2000 year was started to collect statistical data about number of wolfs (Canis lupus L.) in Bulgaria. The number during ten years period was above 2000 ind. (with maximum 2479 ind. during 2008). In our opinion these data are not correctly. According to our estimates, based on suitable areas forest area) in country, home range size of the pack (about 18.4 ha) established with radio-telemetry in Europe, in the country inhabit average 918 wolfs before opening of the hunting season and about 498 ind. after that. For one period of ten years 92.9–95.2 % of wolfs were shooting from October to March. From April to September were shooting from 4.8 - 7.1 % of wolfs. We propose one part of this six month period to be protected (for example April-June, when flocks don't carry out in the summer pastures). This protected period (without shooting) will be beneficial for species, without conflicts with local economics and society.

Ex-post compensation payments for wolf predation on livestock in Italy: a tool for conservation?

Context. Compensation programs have become a common tool to mitigate conflicts between farmers and large predators; however, their effectiveness is based on a series of assumptions that should be carefully and continuously assessed within an adaptive management framework. Ex-post compensation programs were adopted in Italy as a financial incentive to aid wolf conservation since the 1970s; however, their implementation has never been monitored nor actively managed in the past 35 years, during which time a remarkable recovery of wolf population and range expansion into more human-dominated landscapes has taken place. Aims. We hereby report on wolf-damage compensation programs in Italy and discuss their conservation value. Methods. We used data on wolf-damage compensation that we compiled at the national scale for the period 1991–95. Although not recent, these were unfortunately the only available data at the national scale, and were instrumental in supporting our discussion on compensation programs, as these are increasingly becoming a politically and economically sensitive issue. Key results. From 1991 to 1995, annual compensation costs represented on average 86% of the alleged losses to farmers, and averaged €1 825 440 (±169 760 s.d.), or about €5150 (±750) per wolf per year. Compensation costs varied markedly from region to region, although local differences were hardly explainable in terms of wolf densities and their trends at the regional scale. On the contrary, they appeared largely affected by inconsistencies in rules and procedures of regional compensation schemes. Conclusions. In the light of persistently high occurrence of wolf–livestock conflict, and widespread illegal killing of wolves, we argue that compensation programs in Italy currently provide no evidence of being a functional and cost-effective conservation tool. However, lack of monitoring of compensation costs in Italy at all institutional levels, including non-government organisations (NGOs), reveals that compensation policies are not being evaluated, nor is their effectiveness being assessed. Implications. We contend this is an unwise and unsustainable strategy to reduce the conflict, especially in the light of the recent increase in wolf numbers and, most importantly, a marked change in livestock husbandry practices. By emphasising the need for a thorough revision of the compensation schemes adopted for wolf conservation in Italy, we advocate new and theoretically sound solutions to current compensation policies.