Analysis of winter wheat yield using land resources

Straw return boosts N2O emissions primarily during the pre-jointing stage in winter wheat fields: A meta-analysis

Optimization study on diagnostic methods for winter wheat water stress using UAV-borne thermal infrared imagery

Monitoring vertical SPAD distribution of winter wheat using UAV cross-circle oblique photography

Multimodal data fusion and attention-based deep learning for estimating winter wheat chlorophyll content

Abstract Wheat contributes ~20% of global dietary calories. Climate change threatens production, but adaptation is possible by expanding cultivation into abandoned croplands. Here we assess the potential of recultivating abandoned croplands for winter wheat, which accounts for over 75% of global wheat production. Using machine learning models trained on historical records (1982–2015), we relate climate and management factors to yields and project production across currently planted and abandoned croplands under 3 °C warming. Recultivating 30.8 million hectares of abandoned croplands across North America, Europe, and Asia could produce 110 million tonnes of winter wheat annually (20% of current production). Prioritizing high-yield regions such as northern China, Germany, and France could achieve 70% of this potential using only 50% of the land. Our findings highlight target areas where reclaiming abandoned croplands offers a possible climate adaptation strategy for sustaining wheat production in a warming world.

A genome-wide association study using 90K wheat SNP arrays identified nine QTLs with 38 SNP markers significantly associated with Fusarium head blight resistance in US wheat. Six putative novel QTLs were identified from the US wheat with three for type II resistance, two for low DON and FDK and one for all three traits. Wheat Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a devastating disease of wheat worldwide. Growing FHB-resistant wheat is the most effective and eco-friendly approach to reduce the losses. To identify native FHB resistance quantitative trait loci (QTLs), a population of 201 US winter wheat breeding lines and cultivars were genotyped using 90K wheat single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) arrays and phenotyped for the percentage of symptomatic spikelets (PSS) in a spike in three greenhouse experiments, and for PSS, Fusarium damaged kernels (FDK) and deoxynivalenol (DON) content in two field experiments. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) identified 38 SNPs that were significant for at least two of the three traits or a single trait in at least two experiments on chromosomes 1A, 1D, 2B, 3A, 3B, 4A, 5B and 5D. Among them, QPss.hwwg-1AS, QPss.hwwg-1DS and QPss.hwwg-3AL are likely novel QTLs for reduced PSS from US winter wheat, and QFDon.hwwg-4AL, QFDon.hwwg-5BL and QFDon.hwwg-5DL are novel QTLs for low FDK and DON. Among them, only QFDon.hwwg-5BL had significant effects on all the three FHB traits. Most of these QTLs showed additive effects. Among the tested accessions, hard winter wheat 'T153,' 'T154' and 'OK05128' harboring all resistance marker alleles for low PSS, FDK and DON, therefore, they are good resistant parents for improving FHB resistance.

Abstract Mechanical separation of biowastes into liquid and solid fractions, coupled with pyrolysis of the solid fractions into biochar, offers a promising strategy for sustainable nutrient recycling in agriculture. This approach enables localized nitrogen (N) supply through liquid fractions and long-distance phosphorus (P) transport via biochar. We compared biogas digestate (BD) and pig manure slurries (PS) with their respective liquid fractions (LFD, LFS) as N sources, and biochars produced from their corresponding solid fractions (BcD, BcS) as P source applied in combination with mineral N. All treatments were evaluated against a mineral fertilizer control (MinF). Spring barley and winter wheat were cultivated in Year 1 and 2, respectively, of this 2-year field trial. Treatments were evaluated based on agronomic performance (grain yield and apparent N recovery, ANR) and environmental impact (cumulative and yield-scaled N 2 O emissions). Liquid fractions demonstrated superior plant N recovery compared to raw slurries in Year 2 (when applied as standalone N sources), with LFD achieving 28% ANR in wheat versus 18% for BD, while maintaining yields at 92–97% of MinF levels. Although LFS had 26% lower cumulative N 2 O than PS (1.49 vs 2.01 kg N 2 O-N ha −1 , Year 2), its yield-scaled emissions remained 60% higher than MinF (0.16 vs 0.10 kg N 2 O-N t −1 grain). Biochars applied at rates of 8–11 t ha −1 showed no immediate agronomic benefits or N 2 O mitigation. Notably, BcS reduced barley yield by 61% relative to MinF, while BcD performed comparably, indicating feedstock-dependent biochar effects. These findings support mechanical separation as a viable approach for circular nutrient management, with liquid fractions demonstrating advantages as effective N sources. The strategy requires integrated emission mitigation approaches to optimize both agronomic and environmental outcomes.

The purpose of the study was to substantiate the elements of cultivation technology adapted to their varietal characteristics and soil and climatic conditions of the region. The study confirmed that the crop structure is a determining component of the realization of the genetic potential of the variety, and the yield level of winter wheat is formed as a result of the complex interaction of varietal characteristics and elements of cultivation technology. The results obtained substantiate the feasibility of developing variety-oriented technologies for growing winter wheat, taking into account the biological characteristics of specific varieties. Analysis of data from the State Register of Winter Wheat Varieties in Ukraine demonstrates the steady superiority of domestic varieties in the structure of seed material over the past decade. As of 2022, out of 661 registered varieties, 470 (71.1%) belonged to domestic selection, which indicates a high level of their adaptability to the continental soil and climatic conditions of Ukraine, stable winter hardiness and resistance to a local complex of diseases. The share of foreign varieties was 28.9%, which reflects the gradual expansion of the genetic pool and the introduction of varieties with high productivity potential and technological plasticity. A comparative analysis of data for 2015, 2020 and the forecast for 2025 shows a trend towards an increase in the total number of varieties and the gradual integration of foreign selection, which is due to the need to increase the efficiency of intensive cultivation technologies and adapt to changing climatic conditions. The results obtained confirm that the varietal structure is a key factor in realizing the genetic potential of winter wheat, ensuring the efficiency of agricultural technologies and food security of the country. The formation of cultivation technologies should be based on the biological characteristics of specific varieties and take into account their ability to adapt to modern production systems, which allows achieving high yields and stable product quality. This approach contributes to the optimization of agricultural production, increasing the sustainability of agroecosystems and the effective use of the genetic potential of Ukrainian and foreign winter wheat varieties.

This study tested the hypothesis that anthocyanin content and grain characteristics in pigmented wheat are influenced by genotype (G), nitrogen (N) fertilization, growing season (GS), and their interactions. Purple wheat (cv. PS Karkulka) and blue wheat (cv. Skorpion) were grown for three consecutive seasons (2016-2019) at Velký Týnec, Czech Republic, using a randomized block design (three replications) with two N rates (150 and 210 kg ha-1). Skorpion accumulated approximately 3-6× higher total anthocyanin concentrations than PS Karkulka. Across cultivars, delphinidin derivatives - especially delphinidin-3-O-rutinoside and delphinidin-3-O-glucoside - were major contributors to the profile, while cyanidin-3-O-glucoside became the most abundant anthocyanin in PS Karkulka in several treatments in the second and third seasons. Analysis of variance indicated that G (10.41-71.70%) and GS (10.07-33.89%) explained most of the variation in anthocyanin traits, whereas N had a smaller but significant positive effect (0.37-7.70%); most N-related interactions were not significant. For grain traits, G and GS strongly affected yield (41.13% and 44.34%, respectively), 1000-kernel weight (18.45% and 74.06%), grain-size fractions (3.68-20.24% and 56.00-76.09%), sedimentation volume (4.39% and 71.17%), and protein content (4.39% and 71.17%), with a significant G × GS interaction (1.20-29.92%) indicating cultivar-specific seasonal responses. N had limited effects on yield and kernel size but increased protein content and sedimentation volume. The hypothesis was supported. Genotype and growing season were the dominant drivers of both anthocyanin profiles and grain traits, while nitrogen fertilization primarily improved protein-related technological quality rather than yield or kernel size. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

To identify adaptive cultivation strategies for strong-gluten winter wheat under conditions of increasing autumn temperatures and changing precipitation patterns in the Huang–Huai–Hai region, a field experiment was conducted with cultivars Jimai 44 and Zhongmai 578. Field experiments were conducted during the 2023–2024 and 2024–2025 growing seasons, using three sowing dates (T2–T4, 20 October to 3 November) in the first year and four sowing dates (T1–T4, 13 October to 3 November) in the second year, each combined with three seeding rates (M1–M3) that were increased by 52.5 kg ha−1 for every 7-day delay in sowing. This design evaluated how sowing date and seeding rate regulate photosynthesis, dry matter dynamics, and yield. The results showed that post-anthesis dry-matter accumulation, harvest index, grain number per unit area, and grain yield responded quadratically to delayed sowing and increased seeding rate. Delayed sowing increased flag-leaf SPAD but reduced dry matter at anthesis and maturity, pre-anthesis translocation, spike number, and thousand-kernel weight. Higher seeding rate decreased SPAD, net photosynthetic rate, grains per spike, and kernel weight. The T2M2 treatment optimized canopy structure, enhanced photosynthesis, maintained efficient dry matter production and partitioning, and balanced yield components, achieving the highest grain yield. Although severe delays in sowing reduced yield, increasing the seeding rate under late sowing compensated for the reduced spike number and mitigated yield losses. The T2M2 combination and the late-sowing with the incremental-seeding technique offer practical strategies for climate-resilient, high-yield wheat production in the region.

Large-scale agricultural remote sensing monitoring is challenged by pronounced spatial heterogeneity arising from fragmented terrain, complex climatic backgrounds, and diverse cropping structures. However, existing agricultural zoning schemes generally lack an integrated consideration of remote sensing imaging mechanisms and key variable conditions such as atmospheric interference and crop phenology, limiting their direct utility in guiding region-specific sensor selection and classification algorithm calibration. To address this limitation, this study integrates multi-source earth observation data and agricultural statistical information to construct an Agricultural Remote-sensing Classification Difficulty Index (ARCDI) from multiple dimensions, including image availability, cropping structure, cropland fragmentation, and topographic environment. On this basis, a graph theory-based spatially constrained Skater clustering algorithm is introduced to establish a two-tier “cropland–major cereal crops” zoning framework oriented toward remote sensing applications. The results indicate that the proposed framework delineates five distinct first-tier cropland classification difficulty zones across China. This zoning scheme effectively quantifies the regional heterogeneities in monitoring challenges. Building upon this first-tier zoning, the framework is further refined into 50 second-tier major cereal crop classification difficulty zones, including 13 winter wheat zones, 21 maize zones, and 16 rice zones. Statistical tests and spatial analyses demonstrate that the proposed zoning scheme significantly outperforms conventional clustering approaches in balancing within-zone homogeneity and spatial continuity. This advantage is quantitatively reflected by consistently lower residual spatial autocorrelation (residual Moran’s I ≈ 0.10–0.11) and an approximately 20% reduction in within-zone variance compared with other spatially constrained methods. Extensive field-sample validation provides preliminary evidence of an inverse relationship between crop-type classification difficulty and accuracy. These results confirm the framework’s reliability in identifying regional difficulty and its decision-support value for selecting remote sensing strategies. Overall, this study systematically elucidates the spatial differentiation patterns of remote sensing classification difficulty for cropland and major cereal crops across China. The proposed framework provides robust scientific support for data selection, algorithm optimization, and differentiated strategy formulation in national-scale agricultural monitoring, thereby facilitating the operationalization of regional agricultural remote sensing applications.

Wheat is a major staple crop, and interest in its organic cultivation is growing. This study aimed to compare the technological and nutritional quality of winter wheat grown in organic and conventional systems. Sixteen varieties were evaluated using standard flour quality traits and 1H NMR profiling of protein amino acids and free metabolites in whole-grain flour and water crackers. Organic wheat had lower protein and gluten but higher starch and gluten index, with most parameters remaining within acceptable bread-making ranges. Protein amino acid composition was largely similar, with a consistent trend toward higher lysine in organic samples. Organic flour contained less free asparagine and several other amino acids, indicating a reduced potential for acrylamide formation. Water crackers from organic wheat exhibited higher concentrations of prebiotic oligosaccharides, particularly stachyose (28.3%) and raffinose (16.2%), revealing nutritional benefits that emerge during baking. Additionally, we highlight the role of 1H NMR metabolomics in food quality discoveries.

To address the issue of inefficient soil water utilization in dryland wheat fields, caused by a mismatch between summer fallow precipitation and crop growth periods, implementing fallow-period tillage was crucial for conserving water and enhancing yield. However, there was a lack of comprehensive evaluations of the impact of different tillage practices on soil functional quality based on multidimensional indicators, and the relationship between yield and soil functional quality remained unclear. This study established three treatments during the summer fallow period: no tillage (FNT), subsoiling tillage (FST) and plowing tillage (FPT). We determined the soil water-stable aggregates particle size distribution and stability, aggregate organic carbon (AOC) content, soil organic carbon (SOC) content and storage (SOCs), as well as winter wheat yield. Using the Z-score method, we integrated the soil's physical and chemical indicators to perform a comprehensive evaluation of different tillage practices. The results showed that FNT significantly enhanced soil aggregate stability in the 0-30 cm soil depths compared to FST and FPT (p < 0.05), which was primarily attributed to a substantial increase in the content of >2 mm aggregates. Meanwhile, FNT resulted in significantly higher SOCs within the 0-50 cm profile, with increases of 8.1% and 5.8% compared to FST and FPT (p < 0.05), respectively. This was primarily due to elevated SOC content and higher AOC contents within the 2-0.25 mm and >2 mm aggregates in the topsoil layer. In contrast, FST significantly increased grain yield compared to FNT and FPT, by 16.7% and 15.0% (p < 0.05), respectively, which was associated with higher ear number and ear grains. A comprehensive evaluation using the Z-score method revealed that FNT achieved the highest soil functional quality score across the five layers. Therefore, no tillage during the summer fallow can enhance soil functional quality, primarily due to its positive impact on soil structure and carbon sequestration, but may not immediately increase crop yield.

Intensive cropping and long-term ammoniacal nitrogen (N) fertilization have degraded soil health in eastern Oregon dryland wheat systems, leading to soil acidification and declining soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks, which poses a critical threat to sustainability. This study assessed the impacts of a one-time biochar application on soil acidity, SOC sequestration, and nutrient dynamics over 10 years in a winter wheat–spring pea rotation. Biochar, derived from forest waste and applied only once in 2013 at rates of 11.2, 22.4, and 44.8 t ha −1 , was evaluated against both non-amended control plots and plots receiving nitrogen fertilizer alone. Key soil properties, including pH, SOC, labile carbon (POXC), cation exchange capacity (CEC), electrical conductivity (EC), nutrient concentrations, and mineralization rates, were measured. Results showed biochar significantly increased soil pH by up to 0.9 units, with improvements persisting for a decade, particularly at higher rates. Elevated pH positively correlated with improved CEC, indicating enhanced nutrient retention and better macro/micronutrient availability (Zn, Ca, Mg, K), reducing Fe solubility. Biochar instantly increased SOC stocks by 95–207% and maintained the stocks for more than 10 years, demonstrating long-term persistence, particularly at higher application rates. Biochar effectively maintained a higher labile carbon content (POXC), although a declining POXC/SOC ratio suggested a shift to more stabilized carbon pools. Mineralization changes were moderate, with non-significant increases in CO 2 efflux at higher biochar rates and no consistent net N mineralization trends, suggesting limited direct stimulation of microbial N cycling. Overall, a single alkaline biochar application provided sustained, long-term benefits, playing a dual role in mitigating acidity and enhancing carbon sequestration, thereby supporting a sustainable strategy for restoring soil fertility and ecosystem function and strengthening dryland agroecosystem resilience.

Fractional vegetation cover of crops (CropFVC) is a critical indicator for remote sensing-based crop monitoring. However, existing inversion models are largely developed for general vegetation types, limiting their effectiveness for crop-specific applications. Here, we developed a gap-fraction-refined hybrid CropFVC model that integrates crop-specific PROSAIL calibration, an ALA (averages of leaf angle) -based dynamic projection function, and a Random Forest model. The model was validated with 43343 CropFVC samples of four major crops (winter wheat, rice, maize, and soybean) across China during March to August 2024, spanning key phenological stages, and further compared against SNAP (10 m) and GEOV3 (300 m) products. Results showed that (1) the proposed model achieved stable performance across diverse canopy structures, with average RMSE &lt; 9.3% for wheat, rice, maize, and soybean; (2) compared with SNAP (10 m), RMSE decreased by 4.83%, 3.10%, 7.51%, and 8.63% for wheat, rice, maize, and soybean, respectively; compared with GEOV3 (300 m), reductions reached 7.88%, 9.49%, 13.63%, and 19.75%, respectively. Further observations showed that the model-derived CropFVC captured intra-field variability and abnormal crop conditions well, enabling more accurate monitoring of crop-specific FVC dynamics across phenological stages. The proposed operational framework enhances CropFVC estimation by improving canopy structural representation and reducing retrieval bias. By enabling more accurate 10 m CropFVC mapping at the field scale, the crop-specific approach provides practical support for precision agriculture and crop-related food security monitoring.

Two-year remote sensing and ground verification: Estimating chlorophyll content in winter wheat using UAV multi-spectral imagery

Brazide: A breakthrough plant growth regulator that delays leaf senescence under heat stress to promote grain yield in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Herbicides have been pivotal tools but decreasing their use is currently a political and societal priority to minimize the risk for human health and the environment and to hinder the evolution of herbicide resistance. A 3-year experiment was conducted to compare three weed management strategies in winter wheat fields in northern Italy: (1) sole chemical control, (2) sole mechanical control, or (3) their combination. Agronomic and economic performances of the three strategies were assessed. Large variability of weed presence and crop yield was observed across the three years. Higher weed biomass was observed in the mechanical management, while the lowest weed presence and cost for weed control was estimated for the chemical management. Conversely, no differences were observed across the three management strategies in terms of crop yield or net return. The results confirmed that herbicides are currently the most cost-effective control tools, but the continuous variation in prices and costs can modify this situation. Thus, the economic assessment should be periodically updated to remain valid. However, the lack of differences between managements in terms of wheat grain yield or net profit suggested that mechanical or combined weed control can be sustainable alternatives for wheat production in northern Italy. Nevertheless, to ensure the long-term sustainability of weed management strategies with low or no herbicide use, a more holistic approach should be considered, involving a diversified set of control tactics arranged throughout the whole crop rotation.

Timely and accurate in-season estimation of aboveground biomass (AGB) and yield in winter wheat is crucial for optimizing resources and ensuring food security. Light use efficiency (LUE) models have proven effective in estimating crop gross primary productivity and yield across sites and years due to their strong physiological and ecological mechanisms. However, existing studies are limited to satellite applications and have not utilized unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery. This study proposed a practical framework for accurate in-season estimation of AGB and yield in winter wheat from UAV imagery by combining a LUE model and machine learning (LUE-ML) across five plot experiments. Subsequently, the scalability of the LUE-ML yield prediction approach was assessed in farmer's fields from five counties of Jiangsu Province, China. The results demonstrated that while the AGB for the heading stage was estimated by combining the retrieved LAI and 20-day accumulated meteorological features, the AGB during the post-heading period could be estimated accurately using the stage-skipping or stage-progressive strategy, with the latter ( R val 2 = 0.93) outperforming the former ( R val 2 = 0.84). The combination of one spectral index, LUE-derived AGB, and three 20-day accumulated relative meteorological features (Comb. #6) performed the best ( R cal 2 = 0.89; R val 2 ≥ 0.79) for yield prediction among all combinations. When extended to farmer-field yield prediction across the province, Comb. #6 also achieved acceptable performance. This study suggests the use of LUE-ML models represents a significant step forward towards mechanistic estimation of AGB and yield for cereal crops from UAV imagery.