Wild Honey Bees Research Articles

Digging into the Genomic Past of Swiss Honey Bees by Whole-Genome Sequencing Museum Specimens.

Historical specimens in museum collections provide opportunities to gain insights into the genomic past. For the Western honey bee, Apis mellifera L., this is particularly important because its populations are currently under threat worldwide and have experienced many changes in management and environment over the last century. Using Swiss Apis mellifera mellifera as a case study, our research provides important insights into the genetic diversity of native honey bees prior to the industrial-scale introductions and trade of non-native stocks during the 20th century—the onset of intensive commercial breeding and the decline of wild honey bees following the arrival of Varroa destructor. We sequenced whole-genomes of 22 honey bees from the Natural History Museum in Bern collected in Switzerland, including the oldest A. mellifera sample ever sequenced. We identify both, a historic and a recent migrant, natural or human-mediated, which corroborates with the population history of honey bees in Switzerland. Contrary to what we expected, we find no evidence for a significant genetic bottleneck in Swiss honey bees, and find that genetic diversity is not only maintained, but even slightly increased, most probably due to modern apicultural practices. Finally, we identify signals of selection between historic and modern honey bee populations associated with genes enriched in functions linked to xenobiotics, suggesting a possible selective pressure from the increasing use and diversity of chemicals used in agriculture and apiculture over the last century.

The effects of diploid male production on honey bee colony evolution and survival

The order Hymenoptera includes most of the eusocial species on the planet. Correlated is the fact that many of the social species within the order are haplodiploid and use complementary sex determination (CSD) to determine the sex of offspring. CSD is the mechanism by why single sex alleles within an organism result in male development (haploid) and mismatched sex alleles develop into females (diploids). Related to this is the production of diploid males: fertilized eggs with matched sex alleles which develop as male instead of female. Honey bees are no exception to this, and as their numbers continue to suffer globally and their genetic diversity lowers, the effects of diploid male production (DMP) may pose an increased risk to the survival of bee colonies. In the present study, we develop a model for diploid male production in a honey bee colony and show that with ample resources, this phenomena has little effect on a colony’s health, but there is a limit to the sustainability of a colony suffering from diploid male production. We use our model to show that there were likely no great evolutionary pressures against CSD and DMP in wild honey bees as its effects on colony health in the wild would have been negligible but increased environmental hazards such as pesticides and monoculture crops increase the effects of DMP on colony health.

Local and Landscape-Scale Features Influence Bumble Bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Bycatch in Bertha Armyworm Mamestra configurata (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Pheromone-Baited Monitoring Traps.

The bertha armyworm (BAW) Mamestra configurata Walker is a significant pest of canola Brassica napus L. (Brassicales: Brassicaceae) in western Canada. Its activity is monitored through a large network of pheromone-baited monitoring traps as a part of the Prairie Pest Monitoring Network across the Canadian Prairies. The unintentional bycatch of bee pollinators in pheromone-baited traps targeting moth pests occurs in many agroecosystems and may have repercussions for biodiversity and pollination services of wild plants and managed crops. We conducted field experiments to determine the abundance and diversity of bees attracted to green-colored BAW pheromone-baited traps across the canola growing regions of Alberta, Canada. A higher species diversity and more bumble bees were captured in BAW pheromone-baited than in unbaited control traps. Bombus rufocinctus Cresson (Hymenoptera: Apidae) was the most commonly captured species. Few other wild bees or honey bees Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae) were captured during this study. Additionally, we evaluated the influence of local and landscape-level habitat features on bee bycatch. Local flowering plant abundance improved overall model fit but did not directly impact bee bycatch. The proportion of natural and seminatural habitat, and especially forested area, in the area surrounding monitoring traps affected bee bycatch. Both local and landscape-scale factors were important in this study and often have combined effects on bee communities. This study provides recommendations to reduce the bycatch of beneficial bee pollinators in a large-scale pheromone-baited monitoring network.

Melittin from Apis florea Venom as a Promising Therapeutic Agent for Skin Cancer Treatment.

Melittin, a major component found in bee venom, is produced by the Apis species of the honey bee. In this study, the effect of melittin derived from Apis florea (Mel-AF), which is a wild honey bee species that is indigenous to Thailand, was investigated against human malignant melanoma (A375) cells. In this study, Mel-AF exhibited considerable potential in the anti-proliferative action of A375 cells. Subsequently, the cellular mechanism of Mel-AF that induced cell death was investigated in terms of apoptosis. As a result, gene and protein expression levels, which indicated the activation of cytochrome-c release and caspase-9 expression, eventually triggered the release of the caspase-3 executioner upon Mel-AF. We then determined that apoptosis-mediated cell death was carried out through the intrinsic mitochondrial pathway. Moreover, advanced abilities, including cell motility and invasion, were significantly suppressed. Mel-AF manipulated the actin arrangement via the trapping of stress fibers that were found underneath the membrane, which resulted in the defective actin cytoskeleton organization. Consequently, the expression of EGFR, a binding protein to F-actin, was also found to be suppressed. This outcome strongly supports the effects of Mel-AF in the inhibition of progressive malignant activity through the disruption of actin cytoskeleton-EGFR interaction and the EGFR signaling system. Thus, the findings of our current study indicate the potential usefulness of Mel-AF in cancer treatments as an apoptosis inducer and a potential actin-targeting agent.

Managed honey bees as a radar for wild bee decline?

Wild and managed bees are essential for global food security and the maintenance of biodiversity. At present, the conservation of wild bees is hampered by a huge shortfall in knowledge about the trends and status of individual species mainly due to their large diversity and variation in life histories. In contrast, the managed Western honey bee Apis mellifera is one of the best studied and monitored insects in existence. Since similar drivers may be relevant for the decline of wild bees and losses of managed honey bees, this raises the possibility that monitoring of honey bees may help to detect threatened regions for wild bees, thereby fostering urgently required conservation measures. However, this possible relationship has not yet been explicitly tested for. Moreover, research currently focused on honey bees as a model species may yield important insights into wild insect susceptibility to stressors and vice versa. Here we use the bees of Europe as a model to show that managed honey bees are not suitable surrogates for detecting declines in wild bees. A direct comparison of the response of wild bees and honey bees to the same threats (nutritional deficiencies, parasites and pathogens, pesticides, and a changing climate) shows that, whilst some of their responses may be similar at the individual level, when considered at the reproductive level (individuals versus colonies), many of their responses diverge. These results reinforce the need for basic research into wild bee biology, the need for national monitoring schemes for wild bee populations, and the call for conservation actions tailored to the individual ecologies of wild bee species.

Neutral effect of an invasive plant species with specialized flower structure on native pollinator communities

Invasive plants modify native plant communities with serious consequences on plant-pollinator interactions. Invasion by common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca L.) threatens natural and agricultural habitats in Europe, with unknown effects on pollinators. Its special flower structure, habitat requirements and phenology offer novel insights into pollination ecology aspects of plant invasion. We compared flowering plant and pollinator communities between invaded and control sites, and the flower visitors between native plants and common milkweed. Wild bees and hoverflies did not differ in abundance, diversity and community composition between the invaded and control sites. However, honey bees and bumble bees preferred milkweed above native plants during milkweed flowering. In contrast to many studies, our results suggest neutral effect of plant invasion on the sampled aspects of diurnal wild pollinator community, while providing resources for a few pollinator taxa. This neutral effect might be explained by the long-term, wide scale distribution of milkweed and/or its typically relatively low coverage compared to many other invasive plants, enabling the persistence of some native flowering species. However, its special flower structure offers nectar only for a few common pollinators, including honey bee, and it decreases abundance of native flowers in spring with unknown consequences on wild bees’ reproduction success. Despite the lack of direct negative effects on wild pollinators, restoration of invaded habitats to promote native floral communities is suggested to enable diverse, longer lasting foraging resources for wild pollinators and honey bees. Promoting actively wildflower habitats might be vital for beekeepers in the case of milkweed eradication.

Genetic diversity of wild and managed honey bees (Apis mellifera) in Southwestern Pennsylvania, and prevalence of the microsporidian gut pathogens Nosema ceranae and N. apis

The populations of wild honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies in the USA were decimated after the arrival of a parasitic mite Varroa destructor in the 1980s. However, in some places, wild honey bee colonies survived. In this 3-year study, we analyzed 32 wild and 11 managed colonies in Southwestern Pennsylvania for their maternal genetic ancestries and their levels of Nosema spp. infection. We detected nine mtDNA haplotypes in the 32 wild colonies sampled: six belonged to the Eastern European lineage (C) and three belonged to the Western European lineage (M). We found only three mtDNA haplotypes in the eleven managed colonies sampled, all belonging to the C lineage. Infection levels of N. ceranae were relatively high and fluctuated over time while those of N. apis remained relatively low and constant. There were no differences in N. ceranae or N. apis levels between wild and managed colonies. This study shows that wild honey bee colonies can represent old lineages despite being susceptible to Nosema.

Plant evolution can mediate negative effects from honey bees on wild pollinators.

Pollinators are introduced to agroecosystems to provide pollination services. Introductions of managed pollinators often promote ecosystem services, but it remains largely unknown whether they also affect evolutionary mutualisms between wild pollinators and plants.Here, we developed a model to assess effects of managed honey bees on mutualisms between plants and wild pollinators. Our model tracked how interactions among wild pollinators and honey bees affected pollinator and plant populations.We show that when managed honey bees have a competitive advantage over wild pollinators, or a greater carrying capacity, the honey bees displace the wild pollinator. This leads to reduced plant density because plants benefit less by visits from honey bees than wild pollinators that coevolved with the plants.As wild pollinators are displaced, plants evolve by increasing investment in traits that are attractive for honey bees but not wild pollinators. This evolutionary switch promotes wild pollinator displacement. However, higher mutualism investment costs by the plant to the honey bee can promote pollinator coexistence.Our results show plant evolution can promote displacement of wild pollinators by managed honey bees, while limited plant evolution may lead to pollinator coexistence. More broadly, effects of honey bees on wild pollinators in agroecosystems, and effects on ecosystem services, may depend on the capacity of plant populations to evolve.

Rangeland Sharing by Cattle and Bees: Moderate Grazing Does Not Impair Bee Communities and Resource Availability

Rangelands are a dominant anthropogenic land use and a main driver of natural habitat loss worldwide. Land sharing, the integration of agricultural production and biodiversity conservation, may provide a platform for managing rangelands to fulfill multiple ecosystem services. However, livestock grazing can greatly affect biodiversity and little is known about its effects on providers of focal ecosystem services, such as pollinators. We investigated the effect of cattle grazing on bee communities and their foraging and nesting resources in Mediterranean rangelands. Specifically, we explored the effect of moderate cattle grazing on flowering plant abundance, species richness and composition, the diversity of nesting substrates, and consequently, the possible effects on wild bee and honey bee foraging activity, species diversity, and community composition. We conducted field research in the Mediterranean rangelands of Israel during the main bee activity season, in the spring of 2012 and 2013, comparing paired cattle-grazed and ungrazed areas. The availability of floral and nesting resources for bees was unaffected or positively affected by grazing. Similarly, wild bee abundance, species richness, and composition were not affected by grazing, but were instead shaped by spatiotemporal factors. Nor was honey bee activity level impaired by grazing. The foraging preferences of bees, as well as flower species composition and peak bloom differed between grazed and ungrazed areas. Therefore, in our studied rangelands, grazing had its main effect on the foraging choices of honey bees and wild bees, rather than on their abundance and diversity. Moreover, our results indicate the potentially important role of ungrazed patches in increasing nectar and pollen diversity and availability in rangelands for both honey bees and wild bees in the spring. Hence, maintaining a mosaic of moderately grazed and ungrazed patches is expected to provide the greatest benefits for wild bee conservation and honey bee activity in Mediterranean rangelands. Our findings support the notion of rangeland sharing by cattle and bees in Mediterranean ecosystems under moderate grazing intensities, mimicking the coexistence of honey bees, wild bees, and cattle in Mediterranean ecosystems on an evolutionary timescale.

Pengetahuan Lokal dan Keanekaragaman Tumbuhan Berguna Pada Masyarakat Batulanteh, Pulau Sumbawa, Nusa Tenggara Barat: Sebuah Kajian Etnobotani

The study was conducted in Batulanteh District, Sumbawa regency, Sumbawa Island, West Nusa Tenggara, which is aimed to reveal the knowledge of the Samawa people on the diversity of useful plants and their uses. It documented 111 plant species, in which 47.5% are used as traditional medicine. Also, the sudy found that wild honey bees (Apis dorsata) is having a conspicuous association with plants in producing natural honey, which plays an important role in the local economy. The interviews with selected respondents showed that the Samawa people totally understand the importance of forest conservation in relation with the existence of the honey bees’ life.

Rangeland sharing by cattle and bees: moderate grazing does not impair bee communities and resource availability.

Rangelands are a dominant anthropogenic land use and a main driver of natural habitat loss worldwide. Land sharing, the integration of agricultural production and biodiversity conservation, may provide a platform for managing rangelands to fulfill multiple ecosystem services. However, livestock grazing can greatly affect biodiversity and little is known about its effects on providers of focal ecosystem services, such as pollinators. We investigated the effect of cattle grazing on bee communities and their foraging and nesting resources in Mediterranean rangelands. Specifically, we explored the effect of moderate cattle grazing on flowering plant abundance, species richness and composition, the diversity of nesting substrates, and consequently, the possible effects on wild bee and honey bee foraging activity, species diversity, and community composition. We conducted field research in the Mediterranean rangelands of Israel during the main bee activity season, in the spring of 2012 and 2013, comparing paired cattle-grazed and ungrazed areas. The availability of floral and nesting resources for bees was unaffected or positively affected by grazing. Similarly, wild bee abundance, species richness, and composition were not affected by grazing, but were instead shaped by spatiotemporal factors. Nor was honey bee activity level impaired by grazing. The foraging preferences of bees, as well as flower species composition and peak bloom differed between grazed and ungrazed areas. Therefore, in our studied rangelands, grazing had its main effect on the foraging choices of honey bees and wild bees, rather than on their abundance and diversity. Moreover, our results indicate the potentially important role of ungrazed patches in increasing nectar and pollen diversity and availability in rangelands for both honey bees and wild bees in the spring. Hence, maintaining a mosaic of moderately grazed and ungrazed patches is expected to provide the greatest benefits for wild bee conservation and honey bee activity in Mediterranean rangelands. Our findings support the notion of rangeland sharing by cattle and bees in Mediterranean ecosystems under moderate grazing intensities, mimicking the coexistence of honey bees, wild bees, and cattle in Mediterranean ecosystems on an evolutionary timescale.

Relative foraging intensity of various honey bee species on Brassica juncea (L.) czern & coss

Foraging preference of various species of honey bees on Brassica juncea (var. RLC-1) blooms was recorded consecutively for two years at University Seed Farm, Ladhowal (Ludhiana, Punjab, India) during the blooming period i.e. January and February months. The mean foraging intensity of Apis cerana (2.7 bees/m2/min) was only marginally higher than the foraging intensity of Apis mellifera (2.6 bees/m2/min). Among the wild honey bees, Apis florea was not recorded on the crop, while the foraging intensity of Apis dorsata was comparatively lower (1.4 bees/m2/min). The maximum foraging intensity was recorded during the fourth week of initiation of flowering when the crop was in full bloom. Improvement in sunshine hours and the mean maximum temperature during this period also favoured the foraging intensity. Cool weather conditions affected the timings of initiation and cessation of foraging activity; the peak activity of all the recorded honey bees was registered at 1200 h, though the bee activity on the crop was recorded during 1000-1600h. Owing to the maximum honey bees’ intensity during noon, the chemical control of insect pests should not be executed during noon hours towards pollinators’ conservation and consequent yield enhancement.

Morphometric variability of wild honey bees of the mountain forest zone of Crimea as a material for breeding

The results of studies of worker honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) from two points are presented: from a bee colony captured near the Tankovoye village (this swarm was found by a local resident an entrepreneur, the owner of the private nursery “Orekhovod – practitioner” I.S. Emirsinov) and bees captured in the vicinity of Sugut-Oba mountain (Burus) from a swarm captured about 25 km to the southeast of Belogorsk and west of the Feodosia height. Measurements of morphometric features were carried out using the method of V.V. Alpatov (1948), the method of F. Ruttner (2006) was used to identify the morphotypes and the width of the hairline of worker bees. The phenotypic homogeneity of bee colonies from the Tankovoye village was revealed by morphotypes and the width of the hairline on the abdomen of worker bees in the presence of a variety of classical morphometric characters. At the same time, one phenotype characterized by morphotype O (light brown coloration of chitinous integuments on the abdomen) and a narrow hairline f was registered. The presence of this phenotype characterizes the compliance with the breed standards of Apis mellifera caucasica (gray mountain Caucasian), Apis mellifera carpatica (Carpathian) or Apis mellifera carnica (Carniolan), i.e. breeds with a gray abdomen. Molecular genetic analysis of the mtDNA COI site showed the homogeneity of the sample of wild bees captured near the Tankovoye village and their proximity to the Vuchkovskaya line of the Carpathian breed.

Dear Crow

Dear Crow Samyak Shertok (bio) this morning toothe papers are black as rainwords burst inside the mouthlike cheap candy or gunshotsno entry or exit woundonly a bluethroated howlof an eye being openedwith a wild honeybee stingthe center foldslike the palms of a girllooking for her brotherthey say at the Maheshwara Yagyawhen Bramha-booned Ravanaravaged the sagesgathered around the Agniit was you who saved Yamawith your dark dark wingsbut dear crowwho do you savein a country where everyone is a godof death [End Page 200] Samyak Shertok Samyak Shertok's poems appear or are forthcoming in Blackbird, The Cincinnati Review, Colorado Review, The Gettysburg Review, Hayden's Ferry Review, Shenandoah, Waxwing, and elsewhere. A recipient of fellowships from Aspen Words, the Virginia G. Piper Center, the Vermont Studio Center, and the Fine Arts Work Center in Provincetown, he has performed his poetry at TEDxUniveristyOfMississippi. His poems have been nominated for Best New Poets and The Best Small Fictions and received an AWP Intro Journals Award this year. Copyright © 2020 Pleiades and Pleiades Press

Contribution of European forests to safeguard wild honeybee populations

AbstractRecent studies reveal the use of tree cavities by wild honeybee colonies in European forests. This highlights the conservation potential of forests for a highly threatened component of the native entomofauna in Europe, but currently no estimate of potential wild honeybee population sizes exists. Here, we analyzed the tree cavity densities of 106 forest areas across Europe and inferred an expected population size of wild honeybees. Both forest and management types affected the density of tree cavities. Accordingly, we estimated that more than 80,000 wild honeybee colonies could be sustained in European forests. As expected, potential conservation hotspots were identified in unmanaged forests, and, surprisingly, also in other large forest areas across Europe. Our results contribute to the EU policy strategy to halt pollinator declines and reveal the potential of forest areas for the conservation of so far neglected wild honeybee populations in Europe.

A Preliminary Assessment of Insect Diversity in Imbak Canyon – Batu Timbang

This insect diversity survey by the Sabah Forestry Department team was carried out from 16th to 20th of August, 2017 in Imbak Canyon – Batu Timbang area. Nocturnal insect diversity was assessed through light-trapping while diurnal insects were documented through fruit-baited traps, sweep nets and forceps. The mean nocturnal insect species richness was 48 species while the mean abundance was 55 individuals. These values were affected by the presence of many wild honeybees, Apis dorsata and the unexpectedly wet weather. Some Bornean endemic species were recorded, which included moths, beetles, dragonflies and a butterfly species. The Bornean endemic butterfly, Papilio acheron, is a rare species documented during the survey. Interesting and iconic species recorded are the Malaysia national butterfly, Trogonoptera brookiana and the world’s largest bush cricket, Macrolyristes imperator. These insect data provide salient information to enhance the conservation of the Batu Timbang forest. They will serve as baseline information for other insect research work in future. Threats, such as forest fire, fragmentation, illegal clearing of vegetation and poaching are likely to indirectly affect the insect fauna. As such, continuous monitoring and enforcement at strategic locations are important to minimize these threats.

Wild pollinator activity negatively related to honey bee colony densities in urban context.

As pollinator decline is increasingly reported in natural and agricultural environments, cities are perceived as shelters for pollinators because of low pesticide exposure and high floral diversity throughout the year. This has led to the development of environmental policies supporting pollinators in urban areas. However, policies are often restricted to the promotion of honey bee colony installations, which resulted in a strong increase in apiary numbers in cities. Recently, competition for floral resources between wild pollinators and honey bees has been highlighted in semi-natural contexts, but whether urban beekeeping could impact wild pollinators remains unknown. Here, we show that in the city of Paris (France), wild pollinator visitation rates are negatively correlated to honey bee colony densities present in the surrounding landscape (500m –slope = -0.614; p = 0.001 –and 1000m –slope = -0.489; p = 0.005). Regarding the morphological groups of wild pollinators, large solitary bee and beetle visitation rates were negatively affected by honey bee colony densities within a 500m buffer (slope = -0.425, p = 0.007 and slope = - 0.671, p = 0.002, respectively) and bumblebee visitation rates were negatively affected by honey bee colony density within a 1000m buffer (slope = - 0.451, p = 0.012). Further, lower interaction evenness in plant-pollinator networks was observed with high honey bee colony density within a 1000m buffer (slope = -0.487, p = 0.008). Finally, honey bees tended to focus their foraging activity on managed rather than wild plant species (student t-test, p = 0.001) whereas wild pollinators equally visited managed and wild species. We advocate responsible practices mitigating the introduction of high density of honey bee colonies in urban environments. Further studies are however needed to deepen our knowledge about the potential negative interactions between wild and domesticated pollinators.

Darwinian black box selection for resistance to settled invasive Varroa destructor parasites in honey bees

Established invasive species can pose a continuous threat to biodiversity and food security, thereby calling for sustainable mitigation. There is a consensus that the ubiquitous ecto-parasitic mite Varroa destructor, an invasive species from Asia, is the main biological threat to global apiculture with Apis mellifera. V. destructor has almost completely wiped out wild European honey bee (Apis mellifera) populations. The only remedy for apiculture, to date, is frequent control measures against the mite throughout the season, which prevents possible adaptations. While targeted breeding efforts have, so far, not achieved the selection of tolerant or resistant bees, natural selection approaches have succeeded at least seven times. Here, we propose to take advantage of natural selection for honey bee resistance by stopping mite treatment in managed colonies. The main principles are within population mating of the colonies’ own virgin queens and drones and selection based on survival and proliferous development of colonies. Being used for 10 years, it has shown to result in grosso modo ‘normal’ colonies with a high level of resistance to V. destructor. Here, we call for local groups of beekeepers and scientists to join a novel natural selection program that has started so far on three locations. This will eventually lead to several locally adapted V. destructor resistant honey bee populations around the world, and help global apiculture becoming more sustainable.

Himalayan honey loaded iron oxide nanoparticles: synthesis, characterization and study of antioxidant and antimicrobial activities.

Background: Himalayan honey, a natural product of wild honey bees found in the Himalayan mountains of Nepal, has been used in medicine for many years. The successful development of nanotechnology and beneficial effects of honey would bring a new opportunity to synthesize hybrid nanomaterials for biomedical applications. Thus, the purpose of this study was to load Himalayan honey onto iron oxide nanoparticles (IO-NPs) and study their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities.Methods: Himalayan honey loaded iron oxide nanoparticles (HHLIO-NPs) were synthesized and X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) analyses were performed for characterization. UV-VIS spectra confirmed the loading of honey onto nanoparticles. The antioxidant activity of these nanoparticles was studied against 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical system. We also tested antimicrobial activity of HHLIO-NPs using well diffusion method towards both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains of Staphylococus aureus & Escherichia coli.Results: From XRD analysis, the average particle size was found to be 33–40 nm. The SEM images show needle shape porous structures of HHLIO-NPs compared to free IO-NPs indicating the surfactant-like behaviour of honey. In DPPH radical system, the scavenging activities of Himalayan honey (HH), free IO-NPs and HHLIO-NPs ranged 7.93-35.99%, 11.02-52.02% and 16.10-80.52% respectively, with corresponding IC50 values of 1.36 mg/mL, 1.09 mg/mL and 0.52 mg/mL. The antimicrobial property of all test samples showed a noteworthy inhibition on both bacterial strains. However, the HH and HHLIO-NPs exhibited strong antibacterial activity against E. coli.Conclusion: This work reveals that the biological activity of HH is enhanced significantly after loading into IO-NPs. Thus, the HHLIO-NPs would be a promising alternative for antioxidant and antimicrobial agents.

Identification of Total Bioflavonoid Compound of Propolis Extract from Wild Honey Bee Hives Apis dorsata in Sumbawa Region, Indonesia

Identification of Total Bioflavonoid Compound of Propolis Extract from Wild Honey Bee Hives Apis dorsata in Sumbawa Region, Indonesia