Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised Research Articles

Higher Levels of Intelligence and Executive Functioning Protect Maltreated Children Against Adult Arrests: A Prospective Study.

Research shows that maltreated children are at elevated risk of arrest as adults and that higher verbal intelligence, reading ability, and executive functioning (abstract reasoning and cognitive flexibility) may be protective against criminal behavior. The current study examines this hypothesis using data from court-substantiated cases of child abuse and neglect and demographically matched controls followed prospectively into middle adulthood ( N = 1,196). At age 29, verbal intelligence was assessed with the Quick Test and reading ability with the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised. At age 41, abstract reasoning was assessed with the Matrix Reasoning Test and cognitive flexibility with the Trail Making Test-B. Arrest records were gathered from law enforcement agencies through mean age 51. Data were analyzed with binomial logistic regressions. The results indicated that maltreated children were at increased risk of arrest for nonviolent and violent crime. Higher verbal intelligence, reading ability, nonverbal reasoning, and cognitive flexibility were protective against arrest for violent crime. The protective effects of neuropsychological functions were more pronounced for violent than nonviolent crime, for the control than maltreated children, and differed by gender and race. These results suggest that interventions targeting improved cognitive and neuropsychological functions may serve an important role in reducing risk of crime.

Relationship Between Metabolic Syndrome and Cognitive Abilities in U.S. Adolescents.

Metabolic syndrome is increasingly common in U.S. adolescents and has been linked to cognitive dysfunction. Purpose of this study is to explore associations between metabolic syndrome and cognitive impairment in U.S. adolescents using population-based data. Participants included adolescents aged 12-16 years who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) III. The main outcome measures included assessments of cognitive function using Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised (WRAT-R) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) tools. The WRAT-R consisted of mathematics and reading tests. The WISC-R consisted of block design test, which measures spatial visualization and motor skills, and digit span test, which measures working memory and attention. Linear regression models were used to examine associations between metabolic syndrome and cognitive function. We used education levels of the family reference person, while controlling for education levels because of missing data. Presence or absence of metabolic syndrome was tested in 1170 of 2216 NHANES III participants aged 12-16 years. Regression models showed that participants with metabolic syndrome scored an average 1.25 [95% confidence interval (CI) = -2.14 to -0.36] points lower in reading examination and an average 0.89 (95% CI = -1.65 to -0.13) points lower in digit span examination, compared to those without metabolic syndrome. In addition, components of metabolic syndrome-elevated systolic blood pressure and increased waist circumference (WC)-were associated with impaired working memory/attention, and higher fasting glucose and increased WC were associated with poorer reading test scores. Metabolic syndrome was associated with impaired reading, working memory, and attention among adolescents.

Child academic achievement in association with pre-pregnancy obesity and gestational weight gain

BackgroundRecent data suggest that children of mothers who are obese before pregnancy, or who gain too much weight during pregnancy, may be at an increased risk of cognitive impairments.MethodsMother–infant dyads...

Serum Folate but Not Vitamin B-12 Concentrations Are Positively Associated with Cognitive Test Scores in Children Aged 6–16 Years

Folate and vitamin B-12 are important for nervous system functioning at all ages, with important roles in functions such as neurotransmitter synthesis. Although studies suggest a relation between folate and vitamin B-12 and cognitive function in the elderly population, there is relatively less evidence regarding these vitamins and children's cognitive function. The purpose of the study was to examine the associations of serum folate and vitamin B-12 with cognitive performance in children 6–16 y old in the NHANES III, conducted from 1988 to 1994, prior to the implementation of folic acid fortification. A cross-sectional analysis was conducted using data on 5365 children 6–16 y old from NHANES III. Serum folate and vitamin B-12 concentrations were measured, along with performance, on the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised. Associations of B vitamins with cognitive performance were assessed using linear regression models adjusted for various covariates. Higher serum concentrations of folate were associated with higher reading and block design scores after adjusting for various covariates. For example, compared with the lowest quartile of folate, children in the highest quartile scored 3.28 points or 0.19 SD units higher on the reading test (P < 0.05). Vitamin B-12 was not associated with any of the test scores. In the largest study to date, higher folate concentrations were associated with better reading and block design scores. These associations appear to be biologically plausible and merit further study.

Reduced cognitive function in children with toxocariasis in a nationally representative sample of the United States

Toxocariasis has recently been recognised as a potentially important neglected infection in developed countries, particularly those that experience substantive health disparities such as the United States. Given a relatively high prevalence of infection, an association between Toxocara infection and cognitive function may elucidate an important mechanism by which toxocariasis could contribute significantly to morbidity while still remaining hidden and, thus, neglected. To assess the potential relationship between toxocariasis and cognitive function, this investigation measured differences in components of both the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) and the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised (WRAT-R) in children seropositive and in children seronegative for Toxocara antibodies in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, a large, nationally-representative survey of the United States population. Seropositive children scored significantly lower on the WISC-R and WRAT-R compared with the seronegative children. Moreover, this relationship was independent of socioeconomic status, ethnicity, gender, rural residence, cytomegalovirus infection and blood lead levels. These results identify an important association that may reflect morbidity attributable to a genuine neglected infection. Nevertheless, longitudinal data are required to confirm an etiological connection between toxocariasis and cognitive function, as well as the true population attributable risk for toxocariasis and its chronic sequelae.

Development and Validation of the Rapid Estimate of Adolescent Literacy in Medicine (REALM-Teen): A Tool to Screen Adolescents for Below-Grade Reading in Health Care Settings

The magnitude and consequences of low literacy in adolescent health and health care are unknown. The purpose of this study was to validate the Rapid Estimate of Adolescent Literacy in Medicine (REALM-Teen), a word-recognition test in English that can be used as a brief literacy-screening tool in health care settings. A total of 1533 adolescents aged 10 to 19 years attending 1 of 5 middle schools, 3 high schools, 1 pediatric clinic, or 2 summer programs in Louisiana and North Carolina participated in face-to-face interviews. Demographic information was solicited, and participants were administered a battery of reading tests, including the REALM-Teen, Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised (WRAT-3), and Slosson Oral Reading Test-Revised (SORT-R). Internal consistency for the REALM-Teen was determined using Cronbach's alpha, and criterion validity was established through correlations with both the WRAT-R and SORT-R. Using reading below grade level (according to SORT-R scores) as an outcome, instrument accuracy and corresponding cutoff scores were calculated by plotting receiver operating characteristic curves and stratum-specific likelihood ratios. Participants were 50% black and 53% female; 34% were enrolled in middle school and 66% in high school. The average time required to administer the REALM-Teen was 3 minutes. Internal consistency was excellent, as was test-retest reliability. The REALM-Teen is strongly correlated with both the WRAT-R and SORT-R. Five reading level categories were identified: 3rd grade and below, 4th to 5th grade, 6th to 7th grade, 8th to 9th grade, and 10th grade and above. Forty-six percent of participants were reading below grade level according to the SORT-R and 28% had repeated at least 1 grade. The REALM-Teen is a brief, reliable instrument for assessing adolescent literacy skills and reading below grade level.

Prenatal alcohol exposure and attention, learning and intellectual ability at 14 years: A prospective longitudinal study

Background A range of adverse birth outcomes is associated with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Aim To examine the effects of moderate levels of alcohol consumption during pregnancy on children's intellectual ability, learning and attention at 14 years of age. Study design and subjects The Mater-University of Queensland Study of Pregnancy involves a prospective birth cohort of 7223 singletons whose mothers were enrolled at the first antenatal visit. At 14 years, 5139 mothers and adolescents completed attentional and learning questionnaires, and 3731 adolescents completed psychometric assessments. Outcome measures For adolescents, the Wide Range Achievement Test – Revised (WRAT-R) and Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices Test (Raven's) were administered. Mothers completed the Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL) and adolescents completed the Youth Self Report (YSR). Learning was assessed by a series of questions in the mother and adolescent questionnaires. Maternal measures included the quantity and frequency of alcohol consumption, and the extent of binge drinking. Results For consumption of < 1 glass/day in early or late pregnancy, there was no association with any attention, learning or cognitive outcomes. The strongest estimates of effect were found among those consuming ≥ 1 glasses/day. Exposure in late pregnancy was associated with increased prevalence of overall learning difficulty in the unadjusted, although not the adjusted analysis. Binge drinking was associated with a higher prevalence of Raven's score < 85 (1 standard deviation). Conclusions Although a number of study limitations need to be considered, the results suggest that consumption at the level of < 1 drink/day does not lead to adverse outcomes in relation to attention, learning and cognitive abilities, as measured in the current research.

Subclinical thyroid disorders and cognitive performance among adolescents in the United States

BackgroundThyroid hormone plays a crucial role in the growth and function of the central nervous system. The purpose of the study was to examine the relationships between the status of subclinical thyroid conditions and cognition among adolescents in the United States.MethodsStudy sample included 1,327 adolescents 13 to 16 years old who participated in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). Serum thyroxine (T4) and thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) were measured and subclinical hypothyroidism, subclinical hyperthyroidism, and euthyroid groups were defined. Cognitive performance was assessed using the subscales of the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised (WRAT-R) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R). The age-corrected scaled scores for arithmetic, reading, block design, and digit span were derived from the cognitive assessments.ResultsSubclinical hypothyroidism was found in 1.7% and subclinical hyperthyroidism was found in 2.3% of the adolescents. Cognitive assessment scores on average tended to be lower in adolescents with subclinical hyperthyroidism and higher in those with subclinical hypothyroidism than the score for the euthyroid group. Adolescents with subclinical hypothyroidism had significantly better scores in block design and reading than the euthyroid subjects even after adjustment for a number of variables including sex, age, and family income level.ConclusionSubclinical hypothyroidism was associated with better performance in some areas of cognitive functions while subclinical hyperthyroidism could be a potential risk factor.

A shortened instrument for literacy screening.

The Rapid Estimate of Adult Literacy in Medicine (REALM-R), a new 8-item instrument designed to rapidly screen patients for potential health literacy problems, was administered to 157 patients. The REALM-R was correlated with Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised (WRAT-R) (.64) and demonstrated a Cronbach's alpha of 0.91. The REALM-R identified 26 of 30 persons scoring more than 1 standard deviation below the mean on the WRAT-R, corresponding to a sixth grade reading level. The REALM-R identified a substantial number of people who scored poorly on the WRAT-R, and depending on further studies of validity and reliability, may offer a practical approach to identify patients at risk for health literacy problems in a clinical setting.

Attention deficits in children with sickle cell disease.

Previous research has suggested that children with sickle cell disease may exhibit cognitive deficits even in the absence of direct cerebrovascular involvement (stroke). This study was designed to assess specific attentional deficits in children with sickle cell disease. 12 children with sickle cell disease (Hb SS) with a prior history of stroke, 14 children with sickle cell disease (Hb SS) without evidence of stroke, and 13 similar aged siblings (Hb AA or Hb AS) were compared on measures of attention, intellectual functioning, achievement, and adaptive functioning. Significant differences were found between children with sickle cell disease (with or without stroke) and healthy controls on a timed test of visual scanning, the Coding subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised, and subtests of Reading, Arithmetic, and Spelling from the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised. The differences between children with sickle cell disease and their healthy siblings appear to be the result of strokes rather than sickle cell disease itself as children with sickle cell disease without strokes did not significantly differ from controls. Implications for the effects of sickle cell disease and stroke on academic performance are discussed.

The interaction of education and cumulative lead exposure on the Mini-Mental State Examination.

The effect of lead exposure on neurobehavioral performance is modified by age. Whether educational achievement can serve as an effect modifier on the lead-cognitive performance relationship is examined. The Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the reading section of the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised (WRAT-R), a measure of educational achievement, were administered to 256 lead smelter workers. The workers had a mean (standard deviation) age of 41 (7.9) years, education of 10 (2.8) years, employment duration of 17 (8.1) years, current blood lead of 28 (8.8) micrograms/dL, and working lifetime integrated blood lead index (IBL) of 725 (434) micrograms-yr/dL. The median (range) MMSE score was 29 (19 to 30). Multiple linear regression assessed the contribution of age, WRAT-R, education, alcohol intake, cigarette use, IBL, and IBL x WRAT-R on MMSE performance. A significant IBL x WRAT-R interaction examined by stratification found a significant dose-effect relationship between IBL and MMSE, but only in the 78 workers with a WRAT-R reading grade level below 6 years. Workers with higher educational achievement compensated for the effect of lead on cognitive performance.

Neuropsychological deficit profiles in senile dementia of the Alzheimer's type

Recent studies using Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised (WRAT-R) Reading scores as estimates of premorbid abilities have demonstrated that distinct neuropsychological deficit profiles may be associated with specific cognitive disorders such as traumatic brain injury [Brain Inj. 9 (1995) 377] and lupus [Appl. Neuropsychol. 7 (2000) 96], and that these deficit scores predict both functional and financial outcomes [J. Head Trauma Rehab. 14 (1999) 220]. Although the main cognitive deficits associated with senile dementia of the Alzheimer's type (SDAT) are well known, the relative degree of impairment in each has yet to be adequately determined. The present study calculated indices of relative decline (zDiff) for 32 patients with probable SDAT by comparing estimates of premorbid functioning to concurrent neuropsychological test scores. The results suggest that intelligence is least declined in SDAT [Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) FIQ, zDiff=-0.72], followed by attention [Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised (WMS-R) Attention Index, zDiff=-1.14], memory (WMS-R General Memory, zDiff=-2.12; WMS-R Delay Memory, zDiff=-2.33), speed of processing (Trails A, zDiff=-2.85), and cognitive flexibility (Trails B, zDiff=-5.33). Clinical and research implications are discussed.

ATTENTION DEFICITS IN CHILDREN WITH SICKLE CELL DISEASE

Previous research has suggested that children with sickle cell disease may exhibit cognitive deficits even in the absence of direct cerebrovascular involvement (stroke). This study was designed to assess specific attentional deficits in children with sickle cell disease. 12 children with sickle cell disease (Hb SS) with a prior history of stroke, 14 children with sickle cell disease (Hb SS) without evidence of stroke, and 13 similar aged siblings (Hb AA or Hb AS) were compared on measures of attention, intellectual functioning, achievement, and adaptive Functioning, Significant differences were found between children with sickle cell disease (with or without stroke) and healthy controls on a timed test of visual scanning, the Coding subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Revised, and subtests of Reading, Arithmetic, and Spelling from the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised. The differences between children with sickle cell disease and their healthy siblings appear to be the result of strokes rather than sickle cell disease itself as children with sickle cell disease without strokes did not significantly differ from controls. Implications for the effects of sickle cell disease and stroke on academic performance are discussed.

Reliability and Validity of the Writing Essential Skill Screener—Elementary Version (WESS-E)

The Writing Essential Skill Screener - Elementary Version (WESS-E) was designed to screen primary-grade children who are at risk for writing difficulties. 'Four independent samples of boys and girls ages 6-7 were used to study the WESS-E's reliability and validity. Internal consistency of WESS-E items (n = 499) was .91, while 30-day test-retest reliability (n = 83) was .86. On item analysis of the standardization sample, items ranged in difficulty from .28-.98 (median = .49), while 88% of WESS-E items met or exceeded a.50 item discrimination criterion. The WESS-E yielded concurrent validity coefficients (n = 125) of .75 with scores on the Woodcock-Johnson: Tests of Achievement - Revised (WJ-R) Broad Written Language Domain and .78 with scores on the Wide-Range Achievement Test - Revised (WRAT-R) Spelling subtest. Exploratory factor analytic procedures suggest the WESS-E is comprised of two dimensions: writing skills and name writing. However, this factor structure did not fit the data well using confirmatory factor analytic procedures. A diagnostic efficiency study indicated the WESS-E's total predictive value was 84%, sensitivity = .92, specificity = .76, positive predictive power = .79, and negative predictive power = .90.

Learning disabilities and language function in epilepsy.

PATTERNS OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENTParadiso et al. (1994) conducted the only cluster ana-lytic investigation of learning disability subtypes in epi-lepsy (1). Study subjects were well-characterized pa-tients with chronic and intractable temporal lobe epi-lepsy. Selection criteria included WAIS-R Full Scale IQ,>79; age 18 years or older; at least 12 years of education;no magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings otherthan atrophy; left hemisphere dominant for speech; andunilateral temporal lobe epilepsy. Mean (standard devia-tion) demographic and clinical characteristics werechronologic age of 31.9 years (9.5 years); gender (56male/61 female subjects); education, 13.1 years (2.4years); age at onset, 13.0 years (11.2 years); laterality oftemporal lobe epilepsy, 59 left, 58 right; and full-scaleIQ, 92.0 (9.9).Wide Range Achievement Test–Revised (WRAT-R)Reading, Spelling, and Arithmetic subtests were the de-pendent measures. Statistical procedures were as fol-lows: (a) the initial cluster structure solution was deter-mined using complete linkage hierarchical technique, (b)the internal validity (reliability) of the initial solutionwas tested with additional analytic techniques using bothWard’s procedure and one-stage iterative partitioningtechniques, and (c) the external validity was then exam-ined by investigating the neuropsychological and clinicalpredictors of the identified clusters.Six clusters were identified: average academicachievement (36% of sample), high average achievement(12%), moderate reading/spelling underachievement(21%), marked reading/spelling (8%), arithmetic under-achievement (10%), and reading/arithmetic under-achievement (13%). The mean WRAT-R scaled scoresfor these clusters are provided in Table 1. Overall, ad-equate academic achievement was evident in 48% of thesample, whereas various patterns of underachievementwere evident in 52%.INTERICTAL LANGUAGE FUNCTION INCHILDREN AND ADULTS WITH EPILEPSYLanguage batteriesThis summary highlights a few investigations of lan-guage function in epilepsy. Davey and Thompson (2)conducted an early investigation of language function in60 patients with chronic epilepsy. Patients were assessedwith the ITPA and the BMUS and reported that a largeproportion, >30% in some instances, exhibited impairedlanguage performance. Impairments were more wide-spread in receptive functions compared with expressivelanguage abilities and reading. Interestingly, Davey andThompson found that previous caregivers and education-al systems had largely overlooked language problems inthat none of the subjects had undergone recent evalua-tions or speech therapy. Predictors of language abnor-mality were identified, but laterality of focus was notsignificant.Hermann et al. (3) examined a series of patients withunilateral temporal lobe epilepsy using a standard lan-guage battery including tests of naming, repetition, flu-ency, spelling, and aural and reading comprehension. Ascan be seen in Table 2, patients with left temporal lobeepilepsy generally performed significantly worse thanright temporal lobe patients across most scales. The dif-ferences were significant in naming, repetition, and sev-eral tests of comprehension, consistent with Davey andThompson’s observations. It also is of interest that theright temporal lobe epilepsy group scored higher than the50th percentile on only one scale, suggesting that lan-guage problems may be evident in temporal lobe epi-lepsy more generally, but are exacerbated in left tempo-ral lobe epilepsy.

Intellectual psycho-educational and functional status of low birth weight survivors beyond 5 years of age.

To determine the intellectual, psycho-educational and functional status of low birth weight (LBW) survivors (birth weight < or = 2000 gms) beyond 5 years of age and to compare their status with normal birth weight counterparts. This was cross-sectional study. On hospital based cohort on longitudinal follow-up at the High Risk and Well Baby Clinics of a teaching hospital. The demographic data of these children was recorded. A detailed physical examination was performed. The tests of cognition included the Stanford Binet and the Raven's Progressive Matrices. Academic achievement was evaluated by the Wide range achievement test-Revised (WRAT-R). Assessment of visuo motor integration was done by the Bender Gestalt Test. The proportion of children having soft neurological signs was determined. Vineland Social Maturity Scale was performed on all children. Fifty-nine LBW children and fifty-seven matched control children participated in the study. 27 of LBW children were examined at a mean age of 7.0 +/- 1.1 years (group I) and 32 were examined at a mean age of 10.6 +/- 1.2 years (group II). The LBW children as a group performed in the normal range on the tests of cognition and academic achievement, but were significantly disadvantaged (p < 0.005) as compared to controls. A higher percentage of LBW children had low scores on the Bender Gestalt. Test as compared to controls but the difference was not significant. A significantly higher proportion of LBW children of both the groups showed the presence of soft neurological signs as compared to controls. The social quotient as assessed by the vineland Social Maturity Scale was significantly lower in the LBW children as compared to controls. Thus, though the LBW children were performing in the normal range on various measures, comparison with the control group showed that they were clearly disadvantaged on nearly every measure tested, emphasizing the need for early detection and referral for special education.

Intellectual, Cognitive, and Academic Performance Among Sons of Alcoholics During the Early School Years: Differences Related to Subtypes of Familial Alcoholism

Research on intellectual and cognitive functioning of children of alcoholics has been marked by inconsistency, with some studies unable to document deficits. This discrepancy may reflect the substantial heterogeneity found in the alcoholic population and among families of alcoholics. The current study sought to examine the effects of familial alcoholism subtypes on intellectual, cognitive, and academic performance in early school-aged sons of alcoholics. Subjects for the present study were 198 elementary-age boys who were participants in the larger MSU-UM Longitudinal Study. Familial alcoholism subtypes were determined based on fathers' alcoholism and antisocial personality disorder diagnoses. Intellectual functioning was measured with the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R); academic achievement was measured with the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised. In addition, Mazes and Freedom from Distractability factor scores of the WISC-R were used to assess abstract planning and attention abilities. Children of antisocial alcoholics (AALs) displayed the worst IQ and academic achievement compared with children of nonantisocial alcoholics (NAALs) and controls. In addition, children of AALs displayed relatively poorer abstract planning and attention abilities compared with children from control families. Regression analyses revealed that familial alcoholism subtype continued to account for variance in child intellectual ability even when other factors were excluded. Findings indicate that children from AAL families are most susceptible to relative intellectual, cognitive, and academic deficits. The study further supports the proposition that familial risk characteristics (i.e., paternal alcoholism and antisociality) may serve as effective indicators of family risk for poor intellectual outcome among offspring as early as the elementary school years.

School difficulties at adolescence in a regional cohort of children who were extremely low birth weight.

To compare measures of psychometric assessment and school difficulties in a cohort of extremely low birth weight (ELBW) teenagers and term controls, and to determine whether there is stability in psychometric measures between age 8 and the teen years. Longitudinal follow-up; geographically defined region. 150 of 169 (89%) ELBW survivors born between 1977 and 1982 and 124 of 145 (86%) sociodemographically matched term controls between 12 and 16 years of age. Psychometric measures: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised, Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised, and a validated parent questionnaire. Neurosensory impairments were present in 28% of ELBW and 1% of controls. The mean Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised scores were ELBW: 89 +/- 19 and controls: 102 +/- 13. ELBW children did less well on Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised Reading, Spelling, and Arithmetic measures with mean scores in the range from 75 to 85. ELBW children <750 g were more disadvantaged, compared with those >/=750 g. A significantly higher proportion of ELBW children were receiving special educational assistance and/or had repeated a grade (ELBW: 58%; controls: 13%; odds ratio: 9.0). Paired analysis of within-cohort data at age 8 and teen years showed that for both cohorts Arithmetic scores declined, but there were small improvements in other measures, predominantly in the term children. Differences of 13 to 18 points in psychometric measures in ELBW teens compared with controls are both statistically significant and clinically relevant. Decreasing birth weight was associated with increased risk on all measures. The high utilization of special educational resources has economic implications, and the incremental cost attributable to being extremely premature needs to be determined.

The Third Factor of the WISC-III: It's (Probably) Not Freedom From Distractibility

This study examined the ecological validity, construct validity, and diagnostic utility of the third factor of the WISC-III, heuristically labeled "Freedom From Distractibility" (FFD). A sample of 200 children, aged 6 to 11 years, with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) completed the WISC-III, the Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised, and the Test of Variables of Attention. Objective parent and teacher report measures of attention and hyperactivity were completed. Mean FFD scores were significantly lower than other WISC-III factor scores. The diagnostic utility of FFD is limited, however, as the majority of these children did not show a significant relative weakness on this index. Correlational analyses failed to support the concurrent, ecological, or construct validity of the FFD. FFD scores were not correlated with a measure of sustained visual attention. Findings suggest that among children with ADHD, a low FFD score may be associated with the presence of a learning disability or poor academic performance. This finding was maintained after level of general intelligence was statistically controlled. Clinicians and researchers should not view FFD as a reliable or valid index of attention or as a diagnostic screening measure for identifying children with ADHD.

Reliability and validity of the Math Essential Skill Screener?Elementary Version (MESS-E)

The Math Essential Skill Screener–Elementary Version (MESS-E) is a screener devised to identify primary grade students at risk for math difficulties. Item analysis, interitem consistency, test–retest reliability, decision efficiency, and construct validity of the MESS-E were studied using four independent samples of boys and girls grades 1–3 (aged 6–8). Item analysis revealed median item difficulty of .64 and median item discrimination of .75. Interitem consistency was .92 (n = 171) and .94 (n = 711), while 30-day test–retest reliability was .86 (n = 125). Exploratory factor analysis indicated a one-factor solution accounting for 37% of observed variance. LISREL 7 confirmatory factor analysis procedures determined that the one-factor model fit the standardization sample data poorly (goodness-of-fit index = .729, χ2 to df ratio = 9.91). The MESS-E yielded concurrent validity coefficients (n = 171) of .74 with the Woodcock–Johnson: Tests of Achievement–Revised (WJ-R) Math Cluster, .80 with the Wide-Range Achievement Test–Revised (WRAT-R) Arithmetic subtest and .73 with the KeyMath-R Operations Area standard scores. A diagnostic efficiency study yielded a total predictive value (TPV) of .93, sensitivity = .98, specificity = .88, positive predictive power (PPP) = .89, negative predictive power (NPP) = .98, and incremental validity = 39%. The MESS-E displayed a slight tendency to overidentify children potentially at risk for math difficulties. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.