Re-defining the culturing method for Pseudogymnoascus destructans incorporating viability detection.

The invasive fungal pathogen Pseudogymnoascus destructans is responsible for the collapse of several North American bat species through an infectious fungal skin disease known as White-Nose Syndrome (WNS). Recent transcriptomic studies have suggested that trace copper ion acquisition is essential for P. destructans propagation on its animal hosts. However, little is known about the mechanistic details of P. destructans adaptation occurring at the protein level. In this study, we report the global proteomic adaptation of P. destructans under chronic Cu-stress growth conditions employing chemically defined media. We identify 4340 P. destructans proteins, or approximately 47.8% of the predicted proteome, spanning a dynamic intensity range of six orders of magnitude. Chronic Cu-withholding stress leads to substantial alterations in the proteome, with 1398 differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) exhibiting statistically significant (p < 0.05) changes in protein levels compared to control growth conditions. We find that Cu-withholding stress induces increased levels of proteins associated with high-affinity Cu-acquisition, changes in intracellular superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels, and alterations in mitochondrial proteins related to aerobic respiration. In contrast, chronic Cu-overload stress leads to 390 DAPs (p < 0.05), which are more widely distributed across the proteome, with several DAPs associated with genomic stability and basic metabolism. Additionally, in this report, we present assessment of antisera products against intracellular and cell-surface protein targets of P. destructans that are effective for indicating Cu-withholding stress by western blotting. Together this report, provides insight into P. destructans adaptability to copper stress and identifies fungal proteins that may alleviate copper stress in the WNS infection niche.

Understanding the role of cave ecosystems in preventing disease invasion is essential, as caves where bats roost act as natural reservoirs of bacteria. This study focused on the cave walls where bats hibernate, examining the composition of bacterial communities during hibernation and identifying bacteria that inhibit the pathogen Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd), the pathogen responsible for white-nose syndrome (WNS). It was found that both the sampling times and areas influenced the microbial composition on the cave walls. The study identified 19 bacterial genera on the cave walls that effectively inhibited Pd growth, with some bacteria producing volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that further suppressed Pd. These findings provide valuable insights for environmental biocontrol strategies to combat WNS.

Bats perform substantial ecological services, including insect consumption, pollination, seed dispersal, and nutrient cycling. Their low reproductive rates and sensitivity to human disturbance makes bats vulnerable to a variety of threats including habitat loss and fragmentation through weather disasters, pesticides, toxic wastewater, wind farm development, and the fungal white-nose syndrome. With the help of the “Bat Brigade” wildlife volunteer group, the East Bay Regional Park District (EBRPD) conducted a 9-year study (2017 to 2025) of bat distribution, abundance, and calls per hour at three locations in southern Alameda County. A total of 58 bat exit, and acoustic surveys were conducted periodically between April and July at Sunol Wilderness Regional Preserve, Lake Del Valle Regional Park, and Camp Arroyo Regional Recreation Area. The study confirmed the presence of 7 genera and 10 species of bats, including three California Species of Special Concern: The Pallid Bat (<i>Antrozous pallidus</i>), Townsend’s Big-Eared Bat (<i>Corynorhinus townsendii</i>)<i>,</i> and the Western Red Bat (<i>Lasiurus blossevillii</i>). Additionally, the acoustic sampling detected the following species in order of abundance: Yuma Myotis (<i>Myotis yumanensis</i>), Mexican Free-Tailed Bat (<i>Tadarida brasiliensis</i>), and California Myotis (<i>Myotis californicus</i>). Lastly, more than 1,000 volunteers contributed over 5,000 hours of supervised service annually, and this effort demonstrates the tremendous energy that community scientists can bring to a wildlife conservation program.

The invasive fungal pathogen Pseudogymnoascus destructans is responsible for the collapse of several North American bat species through an infectious fungal skin disease known as White-Nose Syndrome (WNS). Recent transcriptomic studies have suggested that trace copper ion acquisition is essential for P. destructans propagation on its animal hosts. However, little is known about the mechanistic details of P. destructans adaptation occurring at the protein level. In this study, we report the global proteomic adaptation of P. destructans under chronic Cu-stress growth conditions employing chemically defined media. We identify 4340 P. destructans proteins, or approximately 47.8% of the predicted proteome, spanning a dynamic intensity range of six orders of magnitude. Chronic Cu-withholding stress leads to substantial alterations in the proteome, with 1398 differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) exhibiting statistically significant (p < 0.05) changes in protein levels compared to control growth conditions. We find that Cu-withholding stress induces increased levels of proteins associated with high-affinity Cu-acquisition, changes in intracellular superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels, and alterations in mitochondrial proteins related to aerobic respiration. In contrast, chronic Cu-overload stress leads to 390 DAPs (p < 0.05), which are more widely distributed across the proteome, with several DAPs associated with genomic stability and basic metabolism. Additionally, in this report, we present assessment of antisera products against intracellular and cell-surface protein targets of P. destructans that are effective for indicating Cu-withholding stress by western blotting.

Bats play a crucial role in the ecosystem. However, North American bat populations have experienced a dramatic decline since 2006 due to white-nose syndrome, a disease caused by Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd). This fungus can invade and damage the skin on bat wings and muzzles during hibernation. Since 2021, Pd has been reported at selected sites in western Canada, the region with the highest bat diversity in Canada, eliciting urgent calls for action among diverse stakeholders. Here we analyze nine metagenomes of bat guanos and wing swabs and the genomes of five Pd strains from western Canada to investigate the distribution and diversity of Pd in this region. Pd was found in all nine metagenomic samples and the metagenome sequences enabled us to identify the associated bat species. Divergence time estimates of Pd based on whole-genome sequences suggest that Pd likely entered Alberta two to five years before its first official report. Furthermore, we found evidence of abundant gene copy number variations in this species. Together, our metagenomic and genomic analyses indicate that Pd is more prevalent than currently recognized and is evolving and diversifying. Continued surveillance with more comprehensive methods is needed to accurately track its spread and facilitate timely management of white-nose syndrome in North America.

White-nose syndrome (WNS), caused by the fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd), ranks among the most devastating wildlife diseases in recent history and is driving severe declines in North American bats. Identifying environmental factors that influence both the severity of population crashes and the potential for population persistence is essential for effective mitigation. We used a long-term dataset from hibernacula across Michigan's Upper Peninsula to evaluate how temperature variation affected M. lucifugus populations before and after Pd introduction. Our analysis incorporated 350 surveys from 48 hibernacula, and we tested 4 hypotheses: M. lucifugus populations move to cooler roosts (mean winter temperature 2-5°C) following Pd introduction; cooler hibernacula have less severe WNS-related population crashes; sites with less severe population crashes exhibit more positive population growth trajectories; and population trajectories after Pd introduction are influenced by site characteristics, including interior mean temperature. Consistent with earlier studies documenting shifts from warm to cool microclimates, our results showed broadscale redistribution of bats among hibernacula. Historically warm sites that once supported most bats were increasingly abandoned in favor of cooler hibernacula. Cooler mean winter temperature was the strongest predictor of this redistribution (-0.023, 95% CI -0.042 to -0.003); sites with lower temperatures had less severe population crashes during initial WNS infections (0.382, 95% CI 0.067-0.674) and exhibited more positive current population trajectories (0.16, 95% CI 0.06-0.26). These results highlight temperature as a key modulator of WNS severity and M. lucifugus persistence. Regions with limited thermal diversity and dominated by warm hibernacula (>7°C) may face heightened risk of severe declines. Our findings provide actionable insights for targeted management approaches, including microclimate-focused manipulations, that can enhance WNS mitigation and support long-term population stability.

White-nose syndrome (WNS) continues to compromise hibernating Perimyotis subflavus (tricolored bat) populations as it spreads across their geographic range in North America. Despite the presence of the causative agent, the fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd), in hibernacula, some tricolored bat populations located near the southern extent of their hibernating range remain unaffected by WNS. We propose that disease progression is absent as these hibernacula, mainly highway culverts, are unsuitable for fungal growth because microclimates fall outside the growth limits of the fungus. Thus, this study investigated the role of hibernaculum microclimate in influencing potential Pd growth and subsequently a hibernaculum's capacity to be an environmental reservoir. We collected microclimate data from multiple types of hibernacula (caves, tunnels, and culverts) near the southern extent where Pd and tricolored bat ranges overlap. Analysis revealed differences in microclimates among hibernaculum types, with culverts exhibiting lower humidity over winter, resulting in reduced fungal growth compared with other hibernaculum types. Caves, which maintained optimal humidity for Pd, had the highest predicted cumulative fungal growth (3.53 cm2), more than double the estimated WNS morbidity threshold (1.54 cm2). The tunnel showed a similar pattern, with a maximum growth of 3.16 cm2. In contrast, culverts, with less suitable microclimates, had the lowest predicted fungal growth (1.78 cm2), only 15% above the morbidity threshold. Although previous research primarily focused on temperature, our findings suggest that relative humidity may be a critical factor, particularly near the southern extent of the geographic range of hibernating tricolored bats. These findings emphasize the importance of considering humidity alongside temperature when evaluating hibernaculum susceptibility to fungal invasion and WNS development. Understanding the impact of microclimate on disease dynamics and bat behavior is crucial for developing effective conservation strategies, particularly for tricolored bat populations near the southern extent of susceptible hibernating populations.

Pathogens that persist in an environmental reservoir can drive host populations to extinction because host abundance does not limit pathogen survival or reproduction. Fungal pathogens are of particular conservation concern because many fungi are generalists that persist in the environment. One example is Pseudogymnoascus destructans, the causative agent of white-nose syndrome (WNS), which has caused severe declines in hibernating bat populations across North America. Treatment of environmental reservoirs could help reduce transmission of P. destructans, and thus, reduce bat population declines from WNS. We tested the efficacy of two environmental cleaning agents, ultraviolet-C radiation and polyethylene glycol, in three mines where P. destructans established an environmental reservoir and caused declines in winter colony size of hibernating bats in Ontario, Alabama, and Arkansas. We observed considerable variation between sites but, based on our experimental design, treatments did not reduce environmental P. destructans prevalence or load and there was no consistent pattern in response to the treatments across mines. More encouragingly, treatments did not impact non-target fungi or bacteria. Our results could reflect aspects of our experimental design, including relatively small treatment cells and the lack of an available assay to assess viability of P. destructans from swab samples. Among-site variation we observed, combined with positive results of these treatments in other studies, suggest that site-specific management responses may be important for reducing impacts of white-nose syndrome on bat populations.

Fungi are ubiquitous in natural ecosystems, and environmental reservoirs such as bat hibernacula can harbor fungal pathogens and shape disease dynamics. Beyond serving as pathogen reservoirs, these environments may also contain volatile organic compounds (VOCs) with antifungal properties that help a host resist infection. Studies have shown that various VOCs from bat caves significantly inhibit the growth of Pseudogymnoascus destructans, the pathogen responsible for white-nose syndrome (WNS), although the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. This study investigates two VOCs isolated from bat cave environments-isovaleric acid (IVA) and ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC)-to evaluate their single-agent and combination activities against P. destructans in vitro and to explore the underlying mechanisms. The results show that both IVA and EMC significantly inhibit mycelial growth in a dose-dependent manner and exhibit synergistic antifungal effects. Physiological and biochemical analyses revealed that VOC treatment disrupts cell wall and membrane integrity, induces apoptosis, elevates reactive oxygen species levels, and causes DNA damage. Concentrations of adenosine triphosphate, malondialdehyde, ergosterol, and NADPH also increased significantly. Transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses showed disruption of the mycelial structure, modulation of virulence-associated pathways, induction of oxidative stress and apoptosis, and interference with purine metabolism, cAMP signaling, and energy metabolism. Notably, combined IVA-EMC treatment enhanced DNA damage and suppressed heat shock protein expression, effectively inhibiting P. destructans growth. Taken together, our study elucidates the antifungal potential of environmental VOCs and offers new insights and application prospects for preventing and controlling WNS.IMPORTANCEWhite-nose syndrome has devastated bat populations across North America, yet effective control measures remain limited. This study highlights the potential of naturally occurring volatile organic compounds from bat cave environments as antifungal agents against Pseudogymnoascus destructans in vitro. By uncovering the physiological and molecular mechanisms of the action of isovaleric acid and ethyl methyl carbonate, individually and in combination, this work paves the way for novel, environmentally derived strategies for managing white-nose syndrome and fungal pathogens more broadly.

Bats are essential for ecosystem functioning, acting as pollinators, seed dispersers, and natural pest controllers. Their ecological services are critical for agriculture, reducing crop losses and minimising the need for chemical pesticides, thereby supporting food security. However, bat populations face multiple, often synergistic threats, including habitat loss, climate change, diseases such as white-nose syndrome, wind energy developments, and pesticide exposure. These pressures not only threaten bat survival but also disrupt ecosystem processes and agricultural productivity. Despite their importance, bats often receive limited conservation attention due to misconceptions and their elusive behaviour. Recent initiatives emphasize habitat restoration, disease management, public education, and the use of advanced monitoring and genetic techniques to inform targeted interventions. Effective conservation requires integrated strategies combining policy, research, and community engagement. Protecting bats is crucial to maintain biodiversity, ensure sustainable agriculture, and safeguard food systems, highlighting the need for immediate, coordinated conservation action.

Much of the research into white-nose disease has focused on the hibernation period, while the pathogenic fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans is actively infecting the bat host. Previous research has found large differences between the susceptible North American Myotis lucifugus and the tolerant European Myotis myotis, suggestive of immunopathology in the former, and a beneficial lack of strong response in the latter. Here, we examined gene expression in these species both during the late-hibernation period and a month after emergence from hibernation, during healing from infection. We utilised paired sampling, collecting wing tissue that was positive and negative for fungal infection fluorescence, to examine changes in whole-transcriptome gene expression that were local to sites of infection at two time points: pre-emergence and 30 days post-emergence from hibernation. Positive samples were contrasted between the two time points to examine longitudinal changes. During the pre-emergence period, local inflammatory responses were observed in both M. myotis and M. lucifugus. Immune responses between the tolerant and susceptible species were dissimilar, favouring Th1 and Th17 cytokine responses, respectively. This lends weight to immunopathology as a contributing factor to mortality in M. lucifugus. Continual immune responses may not only contribute to immunopathology and host mortality but also have important carry-over effects on reproduction and subsequent pre-winter fattening, affecting population viability over a longer period of time than previously considered.

White-nose syndrome (WNS) is an infectious disease of bats caused by the psychrophilic fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans. Phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA) is a microbial secondary metabolite with broad-spectrum antifungal activity. Previous studies show that PCA suppresses the growth of P. destructans at low concentrations, yet its mechanism remains unclear. Here, we evaluated the in vitro antifungal activity of PCA. We then investigated its potential mechanism using physiological and biochemical assays, as well as integrated transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses. PCA showed effective antifungal activity against P. destructans (EC50 = 32.9 μg/mL). Physiological and biochemical assays indicated that PCA perturbed cell wall organization and increased membrane permeability, leading to leakage of intracellular contents. It also induced oxidative stress, DNA damage, and apoptosis. Multi-omics integration revealed that PCA markedly perturbed cell wall and membrane metabolism, virulence factor expression, and energy metabolism. It provoked oxidative stress while downregulating genes involved in the cell cycle, DNA replication, and repair. Together, these findings delineate the inhibitory effects of PCA on P. destructans in vitro, provide initial mechanistic insights into its antifungal action, and suggest that PCA merits further evaluation as a possible component of environmentally compatible strategies for WNS management.

Perimyotis subflavus, is a species that is currently listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List due to the population decline that is causing the White-Nose Syndrome (WNS). However, in Mexico, its ecology and distribution are poorly understood. Despite its distribution in Mexico being mainly in the east, in Nuevo León has never been recorded until now. The individual’s capture was done during a speleologist exploration on March 18th, 2025, in a cave in Laguna de Sánchez, Santiago, Nuevo León. We described the microclimatic characteristics of the roost by measuring the temperature and relative humidity. We also measured individuals fur temperature and roost’s surface temperature where the bat was roosting. Our observation of P. subflavus is the first one in the Nuevo León state. The individual was an adult non-reproductive male in an apparent torpid state. Its fur temperature was 11.1°C, and the roost surface temperature was 13.1°C. The cave’s microclimate at the moment of the capture had a temperature of 12.5°C and a relative humidity of 79.8%. The nearest historical observation of P. subflavus in Tamaulipas state is 146.63 km from our record and 251.08 km from the record in Coahuila state. With our new addition, Nuevo León now has 36 bat species already recorded. The individual was apparently torpid, meaning there are conditions suitable for WNS growth, as it demonstrates that northeast of Mexico could be vulnerable to WNS invasion. Our finding underscores the urgent need to continue studying bat populations in these poorly surveyed regions to anticipate potential threats and establish effective conservation strategies.

Abstract Observations of the Evening Bat (Nycticeius humeralis), a species historically distributed abundantly throughout the southeastern United States, are speculated to have increased in the Midwest. One hypothesis for this expansion in geographic distribution is that local extirpations of other bat species resulted in the expanded realized niche spaces for evening bats. In Indiana, such niche spaces may have been created by declines in populations of the Northern Long-eared Bat (Myotis septentrionalis), Indiana Bat (M. sodalis), Little Brown Bat (M. lucifugus), Big Brown Bat (Eptesicus fuscus), and the Tri-colored Bat (Perimyotis subflavus) due to white-nose syndrome (WNS). Our goal was to estimate the occupancy of Evening Bat in Indiana post-WNS establishment relative to the occupancy of other bat species before significant population declines caused by WNS. We expected that indices of occupancy of nearly extirpated species pre-WNS establishment would best predict current Evening Bat observations, and this would elucidate the niche space evening bats are now filling. We hypothesized that Evening Bat populations may be expanding their geographic range due to compensatory community dynamics, and that their realized niche space may be expanding in part due to losses of other bat species from WNS. We constructed multi-season Bayesian occupancy models using informative priors and integrative prior knowledge to test our predictions. We found that evening bats are occupying the niche space they were already occupying pre-WNS establishment. Furthermore, our results indicate that evening bats may be filling the niche space left behind by Myotis spp. (M. sodalis and M. lucifigus). These results can help us understand the dynamics of bat communities in a post-WNS establishment landscape and may also help to inform conservation of imperiled Myotis species.

ABSTRACTDisease outcomes result from the interaction between host, pathogen, and environmental factors. Understanding how these components interact to influence spatial and temporal variations in disease severity can enhance our insights into the drivers of disease outbreaks, ultimately improving our ability to mitigate the impact of disease through better forecasts and management actions. White‐nose syndrome (WNS) in bats, caused by the fungal pathogen Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd), has been detected in hibernating bats across much of the United States and Canada. This pathogen has led to widespread population declines in some bat species, for example, Myotis lucifugus; however, not all infected populations exhibit similar decreases in numbers. Despite long‐term detection and high infection levels, the population of M. lucifugus that uses Tippy Dam, in northern Michigan, as a hibernaculum has not experienced a decline compared to other populations in the state. To assess local population effects that may contribute to reduced disease severity at Tippy Dam, we brought 30 hibernating M. lucifugus from Tippy Dam and 30 from a geographically similar hibernaculum with a history of declines from WNS into captivity at the U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center. We challenged the bats with a Pd inoculum and monitored survival, pathology, and Pd loads for up to 120 days. This allowed us to remove local environmental effects that could influence WNS disease severity. We observed no effect of source population on either survival or wing damage from Pd infection. Our results suggest that population persistence and lowered disease severity in Tippy Dam are likely driven by local environmental factors found within the dam. As Pd continues to spread westward, understanding environmental factors that influence the severity of Pd infection in hibernating bats has the potential to guide management decisions and help predict the survival of susceptible bat species in the western United States.

The ongoing biodiversity crisis, driven by human activity, climate change, and disease spread, is reflected by the rapid decline of animal populations across all phylogenetic groups. Bats exemplify a group highly susceptible to these threats. While threats to bats are often studied locally, global interactions remain overlooked. Using a literature-based analysis and the metacoupling framework (including the telecoupling framework), which analyzes human–nature interactions across local to global scales, we take a holistic approach to understanding how conservation strategies can support both biodiversity and ecological and socioeconomic sustainability. Focusing on the Indiana bat (an endangered species with an accelerating population decline for which such a comprehensive analysis is urgently needed), we find how local, regional, and global factors contribute to the shrinking population. Results indicate that local factors include habitat disturbance, cave tourism, and public perceptions. Regional factors include inconsistent regulations and land-use change (e.g., suburban sprawl). Global factors include ecotourism, distant consumer demand (e.g., the timber market), and climate change. White-Nose Syndrome affects bats across scales. The results also suggest that conservation strategies limited to local interventions alone are insufficient. This paper advances sustainability research by applying the metacoupling framework to species conservation, demonstrating how local-to-global human–nature interactions can inform more effective and sustainable management strategies.

White-nose syndrome, caused by the psychrophilic fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans, is a wildlife disease that infects hibernating bats, resulting in the deaths of millions of bats in North America. Previous studies have confirmed that volatile organic compounds (VOCs) effectively inhibit the growth of P. destructans, but the antifungal mechanisms of these compounds have not been comprehensively characterized. This study screened two VOCs, 2,5-dimethylcyclohexanol (DMCH) and nonanal, identified from bat cave environments for their potent in vitro inhibition of P. destructans. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy revealed mycelial deformations and disruptions in cellular structures following treatment with these compounds. Physiological and biochemical assays showed higher Annexin V-fluorescein isothiocyanate/propidium (Annexin V-FITC/PI) signals consistent with mycelial apoptosis, increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, higher adenosine triphosphate (ATP), superoxide anion, and glutathione (GSH) contents, and lower catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities. Integrated transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses of mycelia exposed to DMCH or nonanal indicated disruption of cell wall and membrane integrity, altered expression of virulence-associated genes, and perturbation of primary metabolism and energy homeostasis. We also observed signatures of heightened oxidative stress, overexpression of ribosomal genes, and modulation of the MAPK signaling pathway. This study provides novel insights into the antifungal effects of VOCs targeting P. destructans and offers a scientific basis for combating white-nose syndrome.IMPORTANCEWhite-nose syndrome, driven by the cold-adapted fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans, has decimated hibernating bat populations across North America, with profound ecological and economic consequences. Although volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have emerged as promising antifungal agents, their modes of action against P. destructans remain poorly defined. In this study, we demonstrate that two cave-derived VOCs, 2,5-dimethylcyclohexanol (DMCH) and nonanal, not only deform fungal ultrastructure and trigger apoptosis, but also induce severe oxidative stress, disrupt energy metabolism, and dysregulate critical signaling pathways. By integrating transcriptomic and metabolomic profiling, we elucidate how DMCH and nonanal exposure compromises cell wall and membrane integrity, alters virulence gene expression, and perturbs the MAPK cascade, culminating in fungal cell death. These findings advance our mechanistic understanding of VOCs antifungal activity and highlight a novel, environmentally inspired strategy for mitigating white-nose syndrome. Moreover, our work lays the groundwork for the development of VOC-based interventions to protect vulnerable bat populations and preserve ecosystem health.

ABSTRACTConservation successes for the endangered Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) in the early 2000s were largely reversed by white‐nose syndrome (WNS), a novel fungal disease that emerged in North America in 2006. Impacts have been variable among Indiana bat colonies leading to uncertainty regarding the full impact of WNS on this species. However, many colonies maintain negative population growth, threatening long‐term viability. Adaptive evolution could allow populations to persist despite disease, as has happened for other species; however, the evolutionary potential of Indiana bats remains unclear. Here, we perform low‐coverage whole‐genome sequencing to identify population structure, test for potential population bottlenecks, and scan for signatures of selection by comparing bat tissue samples from four states before and after WNS emergence. We found evidence of high connectivity across the Indiana bat range, but reduced gene flow to the colony from Northern New York. There was little evidence of a population bottleneck relating to WNS, suggesting disease‐driven mortality has not significantly altered demographics in this species. Similarly, we found little evidence of parallel selection occurring across the sample set. However, 3 genes contained outlier loci within every state, and several SNPs showed signs of parallel selection within subsets of locations. Finally, although non‐parallel allele frequency changes within a location are difficult to directly link to WNS, we found that groups of genes containing outlier loci in individual states were associated with immune, metabolic, and neural functions with a potential relationship to WNS pathophysiology.

The confluence of veterinary medicine and wildlife health research represents a dynamic and critically important frontier in conservation science, public health, and ecosystem management. The historical paradigm, which viewed wildlife diseases as density-dependent regulators or incidental phenomena, has been fundamentally overturned by a series of epizootics with catastrophic conservation impacts. The emergence of pathogens like the canine distemper virus in Serengeti lions, the chytrid fungus driving global amphibian declines, and white-nose syndrome decimating Nearctic bat populations, has unequivocally demonstrated that disease can be a primary driver of biodiversity loss. This paradigm shift has positioned veterinary medicine as an indispensable discipline, providing a rigorous, clinical, and population-level framework for investigating and mitigating health threats to wildlife. This article provides a comprehensive synthesis of the integral and multifaceted contributions of veterinary science to wildlife health. We delve into the sophisticated diagnostic toolkit-from field necropsy to advanced genomic sequencing-employed to unravel complex disease aetiologies. We explore the technical challenges and innovations in wildlife immobilization, clinical care, and rehabilitation, emphasizing their role in the conservation of endangered species. Furthermore, we examine the application of veterinary epidemiological principles in modeling disease dynamics and the pivotal function of wildlife health surveillance within the integrative "One Health" framework. Through detailed case studies on avian influenza and chytridiomycosis, and a discussion of emerging challenges like climate change, we argue that the integration of veterinary medicine is not merely additive but transformative. It provides the essential capabilities to diagnose, understand, and combat health threats, thereby securing a future for global biodiversity in an increasingly anthropogenic world. The continued and deepened collaboration between veterinarians, ecologists, wildlife managers, and public health experts is no longer optional but fundamental to effective conservation.