Between 3500–2500/2400 BC, during the Early Bronze Age, specifically within the so-called Kura-Araxes culture of Armenia and the broader South Caucasus, clay wheel-and-cart models and animal figurines begin to appear alongside the characteristic, black-polished pottery of this culture. Previously, such objects were not widespread. The discovery of these artifacts in large quantities is exceptional, and their function has long been a subject of discussion among archaeologists. Methods and Materials: A recent study of finds from the Early Bronze Age settlement of Harich, stored in the History Museum of Armenia since 2020, revealed a collection of 330 animal figurines, 9 wheeled vehicle models, and 133 wheel models. These objects were restored, re-measured, and analyzed in comparison with similar Kura-Araxes artifacts from other South Caucasian sites. Analysis: Since one complete wheeled vehicle model was also found during excavations at Harich, it is essential to examine the interrelationships among these objects and their emergence in the South Caucasus as the earliest examples of wheeled vehicles. Results: This study presents the earliest known wheeled vehicle models in the region and discusses their forms and possible functions.

Rotating energy harvesters are used to convert mechanical energy into electrical to power sensor devices. However, as the number and variety of sensors increases, there is a growing need for energy harvesters to achieve higher output power. This paper proposes a novel piezoelectric-electromagnetic energy harvester for harvesting rotational energy from the environment. It is particularly well-suited to outdoor wind turbines and vehicle wheel energy harvesters. The main structure uses a see-saw structure passing through closed coils, incorporating two piezoelectric cantilever beams to achieve a compact design and high output. The see-saw structure is torqued with an attractive force on the one side and a repulsive force on the other. By synergizing the magnetic attraction force on one side with the magnetic repulsion force on the other side, a double torque effect is achieved, which enhances the speed at which the magnet cuts through the coil. Under load, compared with the single-torque harvester, the double-torque driven energy harvester exhibits a 19% and 25% increase in maximum output power and voltage, with maximum output power at 5.76 mW. The prototype can successfully illuminate 60 LEDs; it offers a new and effective way to collect energy and improve efficiency in the future.

Serious traffic accidents from passenger and freight transport often cause serious casualties and property damage. However, the specific mechanisms distinguishing single-vehicle (SV) and multi-vehicle (MV) crashes remain insufficiently explored. This study investigated the primary variables associated with SV and MV serious accidents and examined the factors contributing to different crash types. The scope of this research encompasses 164 accident reports involving passenger and freight transport in China from 2010 to 2021. The Apriori algorithm was utilized to mine strong association rules for SV and MV accidents. The results indicate that in SV accidents, there is a high likelihood of fall-off accidents, which are strongly linked to self-refitting practices and adverse weather conditions. In the case of MV accidents, frontal collisions are frequently observed, with their occurrence correlated with the shedding of vehicle wheels during rainy and snowy conditions. These findings offer safety precautions for traffic departments, transportation companies and drivers.

BACKGROUND: Currently, there is an increase in the use of electric traction on various types of machines. The use of electrical equipment makes it possible to increase the reliability and efficiency of machinery. One of the promising areas of development in this area is combined power plants (CPP). CPPs are widely used on automobiles, including trucks, for example, on dump trucks. With a gross weight of more than 50 tons, the use of a combined power plant is mandatory. Modern wheeled vehicles must meet a number of requirements, including reliability. In transient modes of operation, the internal combustion engine can experience significant dynamic loads. In this regard, the use of CPP may be a promising solution. AIMS: improving the fuel efficiency of a wheeled vehicle. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Numerical methods of mathematical analysis, theoretical mechanics and electrical engineering were used in the research. RESULTS: A review and analysis of various types of combined power plants has been carried out, which has shown the advantages of a sequential scheme for use on wheeled vehicles. A method for calculating the CPP has been developed, which makes it possible to determine the main parameters of the traction electrical equipment system units. CONCLUSIONS: The research results can be used in engineering companies and research institutes involved in the design of promising vehicles.

Abstract The bearing capacity of the lunar regolith, in particular the so-called stress-sinkage relationship, is crucial for the designing of large lunar vehicles. In this work, the bearing capacity of the lunar regolith is analyzed using a semi-empirical model on the packing of solid grains. The model suggests that the lunar regolith with coarser solid grains shows better bearing capacity. By comparing with the stress-sinkage data of lunar boulder tracks, the regolith grains are likely to be crushed into smaller grains with a radius of ~3.1--11.3 μm when the normal stress on the lunar surface increases from zero to ~50 kPa. Such a result suggests that the bearing capacity of the lunar regolith can be affected by the fragmentation of regolith grains. The stress-sinkage data of lunar boulder tracks suggest a sinkage ~0.5 m for a normal stress >25 kPa on the lunar surface. If the wheels of large lunar vehicles still follow the standards of terrestrial wheels, i.e., 14--21 inches or ~0.36--0.53 m, the stuck of wheels cannot be avoided given the potential normal stress of tens of kPa at least for the wheel-ground interactions. Based on the results in this work, the bearing capacity of the lunar regolith can be improved by suppressing the fragmentation of regolith grains, which would be achieved by mixing the lunar regolith with the coarser grains consisting of other more ductile materials.

Abstract Abstract—This study investigates the efficiency and effectiveness of a Fuzzy Logic Adaptive Control (FLAC) system designed to regulate the TCS for longitudinal-wheel dynamics in In-Wheel Motorized Electric Vehicles (IWM-EVs), especially in challenging driving scenarios such as slippery ice roads. The FLAC system integrates a Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) and a Proportional-Integral (PI) controller, employing adaptive parameters based on wheel slip dynamics. Numerous controlled wheel slip models are compared through MATLAB simulations to identify the most stable and efficient approach. In addition to offline simulations, the proposed control strategy was validated through real-time Model-in-the-Loop (RT-MIL) implementation on an OPAL-RT platform to assess its performance under deterministic execution constraints. The real-time results confirm the robustness and practical feasibility of the FLAC-based traction control approach. A detailed analysis of the FLC-PI controller operations underscores its ability to dynamically adjust the torque requests to optimize the wheel slip and vehicle dynamics, further emphasizing the effectiveness of the FLAC system in enhancing vehicle control under diverse driving conditions.

The passive suspension system based on centralized hydraulic sources suffers from prominent issues such as large space occupancy, low energy efficiency, maintenance difficulties, and insufficient overall performance. To address these issues, this paper innovatively proposes design solutions and control strategies for multiple suspension systems based on distributed hydraulic sources, specifically tailored for heavy-duty special wheeled vehicles. A semi-active suspension system is developed based on both PID control strategy and sky-hook control strategy, which enhances suspension performance under the constraints of limited cost and minimal structural changes. A detailed comprehensive performance simulation model is established, and simulation analysis is conducted under different driving states and road surface conditions. The results indicate that the PID control strategy performs better under dynamic operating conditions such as curves, acceleration, and braking, while the sky-hook control strategy performs better when the vehicle traverses on Class C-F road surfaces. To further enhance the suspension system's performance, active and slow-active suspension systems are designed. By actively applying control forces, the limitations of the semi-active suspension, which can only respond passively, are overcome. Through the integration of road surface recognition technology, the systems can sense the road surface conditions ahead in real time and convert them into control commands in a feedforward form. This significantly improves the dynamic performance of the suspension system and reduces the performance requirements on posture stabilization devices for onboard weapons and other equipment. In terms of vehicle body deflection, vehicle body acceleration, and dynamic tire load, the relevant indicators for the active suspension are reduced to 2.5%, 7.2%, and 7.3% of those for the semi-active suspension, respectively, while the relevant indicators for the slow-active suspension are reduced to 46.3%, 31.4%, and 31.5% of those for the semi-active suspension, respectively.

The article presents an analysis of current approaches to evaluating the ride comfort and reliability of wheeled military vehicles and substantiates the need to include specialized road sections in the structure of the testing grounds of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. The study considers operational experience gained under combat conditions and the requirements of NATO standards. It is shown that traditional field testing on natural rough terrain has significant disadvantages due to the variability of surface conditions, while the use of standardized artificial obstacles on a hard surface ensures reproducibility and completeness of assessing vibration exposure and suspension durability. The proposed solution involves incorporating specialized test sections, such as the Belgian Block Road, which enables quantitative assessment of ride comfort and vibration impact on the crew, as well as the Washboard Road and Wave Course, which allow the study of suspension dynamics and resonance modes of vehicle bodies. In addition, the Fatigue Track type sections are recommended to provide accelerated multi-cycle durability testing of suspension and structural elements under controlled dynamic loading, helping to identify weak points before vehicles enter service. Comparative analysis of existing NATO and Ukrainian testing facilities demonstrates the absence of such standardized surfaces in domestic proving grounds. Implementing these sections would ensure methodological compatibility with NATO standards, improve the reliability of testing results, and optimize the design and maintenance of suspension systems for new-generation vehicles. The obtained results have practical value for upgrading the national test infrastructure and for developing unified standards for evaluating mobility, ride comfort, and reliability of wheeled military vehicles.

The article presents the results of a scientific study aimed at improving the calculation and analytical method for determining the fuel consumption of military wheeled vehicles (MWV) of the National Guard of Ukraine under specific operational conditions. The necessity of taking into account the real operating modes of the engine and transmission, which significantly affect fuel efficiency but are not reflected in existing regulatory and analytical methods, has been substantiated. It has been shown that classical models, in particular Hovorushchenko’s fuel consumption equation, use constant coefficients that do not consider the dynamic changes in crankshaft rotation frequency and transmission load occurring during vehicle operation in difficult road conditions. Based on the analysis of these limitations, the paper for the first time proposes the introduction of an operational intensity coefficient, which reflects the actual operating modes of the engine and makes it possible to quantitatively assess the level of energy load on the powertrain during motion. It has been determined that this coefficient integrates the relationship between three key parameters — vehicle speed, engine crankshaft rotation frequency, and transmission load ratio – ensuring its universality for different types of military wheeled vehicles. An analytical dependence of the operational intensity coefficient on vehicle speed has been obtained, describing the variation of engine operating modes within the range of 900–2500 rpm. At low speeds, the coefficient takes values from 1.5 to 2.0, corresponding to heavy operating conditions, while at cruising speeds it decreases to 0.7–0.9, indicating economical operation modes. The coefficient provides a physical explanation for the origin of regulatory fuel consumption surcharges and enables justified consideration of additional fuel consumption under extreme operating conditions of the engine and transmission. Incorporating the operational intensity coefficient into the Hovorushchenko fuel consumption equation allows the base model to be adapted to real conditions without altering its analytical structure. This significantly increases the accuracy of fuel consumption assessment for military vehicles and forms a scientific basis for developing refined fuel norms and conducting further experimental validation.

This study presents the development and experimental evaluation of an impregnation composition for cement concrete pavements aimed at improving ice-phobic performance while preserving tire–pavement adhesion characteristics. The formulation is based on a combination of keratin-containing raw materials and water-soluble polymer components. Optimization showed that a polymer concentration of 2.5% reduces concrete water absorption by 49–53% compared with untreated specimens. Freezing tests conducted at temperatures of 0 to −5 °C demonstrated an additional reduction in water absorption of treated specimens by 33–40% relative to uncoated concrete and improved resistance to ice formation. The influence of the impregnation on tire–pavement interaction was assessed using a direct shear method, revealing minor changes in friction coefficients of up to ~6% for polished and less than 1% for rough surfaces, remaining within acceptable safety limits. Wear resistance was evaluated through rolling tests with model vehicle wheels, where laboratory abrasion occurred after several thousand loading cycles, while probabilistic correction accounting for trajectory variability indicated an extension of service life to the order of tens of thousands of vehicle passes. The results confirm the potential of the keratin–polymer impregnation as an effective approach for enhancing the durability and operational safety of concrete pavements in cold climates.

This paper presents a study of the stress analysis of differential gear used in motor vehicle for the transmission of engine power to all drive wheels. In motor vehicles, the differential gear provides equal power to all drive wheels while allowing each driving wheel to turn at a different angle and velocity. A vehicle's wheels rotate at different velocity, especially while turning on corners. Differential gears fail when the tension at gear tooth exceeds its safety limit. Therefore, this work shall determine the maximum capacity at specified load and gears analysis shall be carried out to present information of the minimal stress that should not be exceeded on gear teeth in order to prevent gear failure. The study adopted comparative analysis of the results obtained on different materials used for differential gear manufacture (i.e., maraging steel, aluminium alloy and cast steel) and determine a suitable material appropriate for differential gear manufacture with very low propensity to failure.

Purpose The purpose of this study is to reduce wheel–rail vibration noise (with the noise level increasing by approximately 9 dB for every doubling of train speed) by enhancing wheel damping. Besides, it verifies the performance of the damping wheel and provides support for the engineering application of low-noise wheels. Design/methodology/approach This study takes the damping ring-constraint layer composite wheel as the research object. First, it proposes a wheel scheme combining a damping ring and constrained damping. Then, it verifies the natural frequency and damping of the proposed wheel via 3D finite element modeling and modal analysis. Finally, in the laboratory, the wheel–rail relationship test setup is used to conduct tests on two types of wheel structures (nondamping wheel and damping wheel) under radial and axial excitation. Findings The damping wheel significantly reduces the corresponding radiated sound power level, with an overall noise reduction of approximately 10 dB or more, especially in the high-frequency region (around 3,150 Hz). The damping ring reduces high-frequency noise, while the constraint layer suppresses medium-low frequency noise. The combined structure outperforms single-component structures in the full frequency range, as it can suppress both high-frequency whistling noise and medium-low rolling noise. Originality/value The originality of this study lies in proposing a wheel scheme that combines a damping ring and constrained damping. The study’s value is to provide a theoretical basis and technical guidance for the engineering application of low-noise wheels in rail vehicles.

In urban rail transit systems, the wheelset is regarded as a critical component for ensuring the operational safety of metro vehicles. Its degradation behavior significantly influences vehicle stability and maintenance efficiency. Conventional maintenance strategies, typically based on periodic inspections or individual wheel conditions, often lead to low resource utilization and high maintenance costs, making them inadequate for the efficient management of large-scale fleets. To address these challenges, a group maintenance optimization method based on wheels degradation data is proposed. The degradation process is modeled using a gamma process, and a degradation rate function for each wheel is derived. An optimization model is then formulated to minimize the total maintenance cost, in which the optimal grouping scheme and the corresponding maintenance intervals are jointly determined using a particle swarm optimization algorithm. A simulation is performed using field-measured degradation data from 16 wheels of a metro vehicle. The results demonstrate that, compared with traditional individual maintenance strategies, the proposed method significantly reduces total maintenance costs and improves maintenance schedule coordination. Further sensitivity analysis reveals that the impact of the maintenance threshold is closely related to the heterogeneity in wheels degradation, highlighting the adaptability of the group maintenance strategy to diverse operational conditions.

ABSTRACT Accurate power consumption prediction is critical for ensuring long‐term autonomy of autonomous wheeled vehicles (AWVs) in unstructured off‐road environments. However, this task remains challenging due to the complex vehicle‐terrain interactions. Existing methods, predominantly relying on single‐modality data or pure physical models, fail to achieve the required prediction accuracy and cross‐domain generalization capability for practical deployment. To address these limitations, we propose Power‐aware Vision and State Fusion (PaVSF), a parameter‐aware multimodal fusion model. Our model conditions multi‐scale visual representations on vehicle operational states and adaptively fuses them with power signals. A physics consistency loss based on power conservation principles is integrated to regularize the learning process, enabling end‐to‐end power consumption regression. Experimental results demonstrate that our model significantly outperforms the self‐constructed BasicModel, reducing the MAE and RMSE of power consumption prediction by 76.16% (to 6.33 W) and 74.89% (to 8.68 W), respectively. Ablation study validates the necessity of each core component. Furthermore, the model exhibits exceptional generalization and robustness, as evidenced by low prediction errors in steady‐state intervals across real‐world unseen and heterogeneous terrains, with MAE values of 8.90 W on transition terrain in familiar states and 7.50 W on unmowed lawn terrain in unfamiliar states. This work presents a deployable solution for power consumption prediction in off‐road navigation. The code and related resources are available at: https://github.com/ShilongXu/PaVSF .

Wheel alignment is a critical vehicle maintenance parameter influencing safety, handling stability, tire life, and fuel efficiency. Conventional alignment assessment relies on external alignment bays, making the process reactive and dependent on workshop visits. This paper presents an in vehicle wheel alignment monitoring system that enables proactive detection of misalignment through embedded sensor diagnostics. The proposed system evaluates key alignment parameters—Toe, Camber, and Caster—using alignment sensors integrated into the suspension, supported by vehicle level sensors, steering angle sensors, gear position sensors, and yaw rate sensors. The Anti lock Braking System control unit acts as the master ECU, validating predefined operating conditions, executing alignment algorithms, and comparing real time sensor data with stored reference values. Alignment status and corrective recommendations are communicated to the driver via the vehicle command display. The paper describes the system methodology, sensor working principles, data flow, and system architecture, and compares the proposed approach with traditional alignment methods. This enables real time monitoring, preventive maintenance, improved safety, and customer convenience.

Abstract 1 1 Data for this paper was created thanks to grants from: (1) The Economic and social research council, The Occupational Structure of Nineteenth Century Britain, Grant RES-000-23-1579; (2) The Leverhulme Trust, The Occupational Structure of England and Wales c.1379-c1729; (3) the Leverhulme Trust, Transport, Urbanization and Economic Development c.1670-1911 (RPG-2013-093); (4) NSF (SES-1260699), Modelling the Transport Revolution and the Industrial Revolution in England; (5) The Isaac Newton Trust (Cambridge), Transport, Energy and Urbanization c.1670-1911. We thank Max Satchell for foundational work creating GIS shapefiles of the roads. We also thank seminar participants at the University of Cambridge and UC Irvine. All errors are our own. Travel improved dramatically between 1660 and 1820 in England and Wales. This paper uses nearly 100 travellers’ diaries to study the mode choice, speed of road transport and the quality of the roads used from the mid-1600s to 1820. Using mapping software, we digitise journeys made by various travel modes along more than 348,000 journey miles. We document that travel shifted from the saddlehorse to wheeled vehicles and that speed increased, although to a lesser degree in private or hired carriages compared to stagecoaches. We also report a novel measure of road quality using diarists’ descriptions of the road. The reported quality of many main roads went from ‘poor’ to ‘adequate’ or ‘good’ by the early 19 th century. We also show that turnpike trusts, a novel organization for road funding, contributed to significantly better quality and were favoured over other roads by travellers in wheeled vehicles. Our estimates imply that the spread of turnpike trusts can account for most of the road quality change from 1660 to 1820.

Abstract Electric Power-Assisted Steering (EPAS) systems are increasingly used in modern vehicles to enhance maneuverability, safety, comfort, and fuel efficiency. Their performance depends heavily on control strategies for regulating assist torque under varying driving conditions. This study experimentally investigates the application of a modified form of the conventional Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) algorithm – the PD+I control algorithm – for motor current regulation in EPAS systems, aiming to reduce torque ripple and enhance system stability. The experimental setup consisted of a rack-and-pinion steering mechanism, a geared DC motor driven via a power stage to generate assist torque, and sensors for torque, angle, and current measurement. Variable steering resistance was emulated using two non-linear helical coil springs mounted at one end of the rack. The PD+I algorithm regulated motor current with the reference in relation to steering wheel torque and vehicle speed. The controller was implemented on a National Instrument myRIO-1900 embedded device and manually tuned via a graphic-user-interface (GUI) to meet desired performance. Experimental results confirmed that PD+I control maintained accurate current tracking across various driving phases, low torque ripple, and consistent steering feel. This experimental study demonstrated the suitability of PD+I control algorithms for EPAS control and provided guidances for further development.

ABSTRACT Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) have attracted increasing attention due to their high energy efficiency, zero emissions, and potential for sustainable transportation, making accurate powertrain simulation crucial for design and performance evaluation. However, comprehensive simulation tools for FCEVs remain limited, and existing platforms often restrict user flexibility, hindering the assessment of various vehicle architectures and control strategies. Open and modular environments such as MATLAB/Simulink enable detailed modeling of energy flow, vehicle dynamics, and hybrid powertrain components, allowing the investigation of efficiency and dynamic behavior under realistic conditions. In this study, a comprehensive simulation framework named the Performance Analysis and Driving Simulation Program (PADSIP) was developed for electric, fuel cell, and hybrid vehicles, covering both series and parallel configurations for wheeled and tracked platforms. The framework integrates modular models of fuel cells, batteries, electric motors, and energy management strategies, coupling vehicle dynamics with powertrain control algorithms to simulate standard driving cycles such as the Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC). The developed PADSIP framework provides a flexible and user‐oriented platform for analyzing fuel cell hybrid powertrains, enabling comparative performance studies and supporting the development of advanced energy management and optimization strategies.

Abstract This article takes wheel hub bearings as the research object. Firstly, the heat generation and heat dissipation processes of the bearings are analyzed. Secondly, using the finite element method, the temperature field of the bearing was analyzed. The study determined the temperature distribution and the influence of thermal effects on bearing deformation. Then, the effects of axial load, radial load, and rotational speed on the bearing’s temperature rise were analyzed separately. Finally, logarithmic curve modification was used to modify the two ends of the roller, and the simulated temperature data of the modified bearing was compared and analyzed with that before modification. The overall temperature of the bearing decreased to a certain extent.

Drive-by monitoring using instrumented vehicles enables indirect detection of bridge damage, offering a practical alternative to traditional sensor installations on a bridge and manual inspections. This study focuses on a drive-by method to detect permanent scour settlements at bridge supports. A novel self-calibration approach is introduced to estimate vehicle properties through an optimization process using inertial sensor data collected from the vehicle. Once these properties are identified, the inverse Newmark-Beta algorithm is applied to infer the apparent road profile, i.e., the profile experienced by the vehicle, which represents a combination of the road surface irregularities and the bridge’s deflection beneath a moving vehicle wheel. Scour damage is then identified by measuring differences in the inferred profiles between undamaged and damaged structural states. The approach is validated through simulations and field testing on a near-full-scale bridge at the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre in Ispra, Italy. Simulations are conducted to evaluate the method’s sensitivity to scour settlements as small as 2 mm, using vehicles with different properties and speeds. Field experiments demonstrate successful detection of a settlement of 4 mm across repeated runs. The apparent profile patterns consistently differ between healthy and damaged bridge conditions, with high repeatability noted for multiple of runs of the same vehicle. These findings highlight the robustness of the approach and its suitability for real-world application.