Hessian Fly Research Articles

Effect of Jasmonic Application on Economically Insect Pests and Yeald in Spring Wheat

Field trials were conducted in spring wheat to observe effects of jasmonic acid (JA) on aphids, thrips and wheat blossom midge (WBM). Two spring wheat varieties (Triso and Kadrilj) were sprayed twice, with two concentrations of JA plus control. Wheat pests and associated natural enemies (Coccinellidae, Empididae and Aphelinidae) were surveyed by direct count and sweep net methods. Thrips larvae and adults and WBM larvae were estimated by dissecting wheat ears. Wheat midge larvae were monitored using white traps in treated and untreated plots. At the end of season, wheat yield was assessed in treated and control plots. There was a significant difference in the number of insect pests and their natural enemies between treatments in both varieties. Plants in control plots had higher numbers of aphids, thrips and midges than in treated plots. There were more aphids, thrips and midges on the variety ‘Triso’ than on ‘Kadrilj’. JA application enhanced wheat yield in treated plots compared to control plots. The results indicated that JA mediated induction of plant defense in wheat plants can improve resistance against insect herbivores. JA could be used to develop environmentally sound crop management with reduced insecticide applications.

Insecticidal activity of wheat Hessian fly responsive proteins HFR-1 and HFR-3 towards a non-target wheat pest, cereal aphid (Sitobion avenae F.)

The interaction between Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor) and wheat (Triticum aestivum) involves a gene-for-gene resistance mechanism. The incompatible interaction leading to resistance involves up-regulation of several Hfr (Hessian fly responsive) genes encoding proteins with potential insecticidal activity. The encoded proteins HFR-1, HFR-2 and HFR-3 all possess lectin-like domains. HFR-1 and HFR-3 were produced as recombinant proteins using Escherichia coli and Pichia pastoris, respectively as expression hosts. Purified recombinant proteins were assayed for insecticidal effects towards cereal aphid (Sitobion avenae), an insect to which wheat shows only tolerance. Both HFR-1 and HFR-3 were found to be insecticidal towards S. avenae when fed in artificial diet. Although HFR-3 has sequence similarity and similar chitin-binding activity to wheat germ agglutinin (WGA), the latter protein was almost non-toxic to S. avenae. HFR-3 binds strongly to aphid midguts after ingestion, whereas WGA binds but does not persist over a feed-chase period. Quantitative PCR showed that Hfr-3 mRNA does not increase in level after cereal aphid infestation. The results suggest that the lack of effective resistance to cereal aphid in wheat is not due to an absence of genes encoding suitable insecticidal proteins, but results from a failure to up-regulate gene expression in response to aphid attack.

Biological and molecular characterization of Hessian fly (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) from Israel

Samples of a dipteran pest of wheat were tested to confirm identity, describe local populations and suggest the use of deploying resistance (R) genes in wheat cultivars for control of Mayetiola destructor, Hessian fly (HF). Morphological evaluation of adults and a free-choice oviposition preference test documenting that females overwhelmingly preferred to oviposit on wheat instead of barley supported they were HF. Using the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (coxI), the Barcoding Region, nine haplotypes were revealed. Two were found only in the Israeli collections and averaged 3% sequence divergence compared to the other seven haplotypes found in the United States, Israel and Syria. In evaluations of virulence, the Israeli HF in culture was virulent to 11 of the 19 (R) genes tested, and complementation analysis documented that, for four of the R genes tested, the Israeli HF shared loci for virulence with HF from the United States. Levels of HF infestation at seven Israeli fields were at least at the 5-8% level, which historically has indicated a significant yield loss. Microsatellite genotyping of the five HF collections from Israel revealed mixed populations in Israel that are distinctly separate from the single population in Syria.

Registration of ‘Kharoba’: A Bread Wheat Cultivar Developed through Doubled Haploid Breeding

‘Kharoba’ (Reg. No. CV‐1068, PI 664028), a hard red spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivar developed using doubled haploid technology by the Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique (INRA), Morocco, and tested as 00DHBW300, was approved for release in 2010 by the Office National de Sécurité Sanitaire des Produits Alimentaires (ONSSA), Morocco. Kharoba was selected from the doubled haploids derived from the cross ‘Altar 84’/Aegilops squarrosa 221//‘Pastor’/3/k134(6)/‘Veery’//‘Bobwhite’/‘Pavon’/4/‘Tilila’. Kharoba is a widely adapted, high‐yielding, short, erect cultivar having good end‐use qualities. Kharoba is resistant to leaf rust (caused by Puccinia triticina Eriks.), yellow rust (caused by P. striiformis Westend f. sp. tritici), the Hessian fly [Mayetiola destructor (Say)], and Fusarium head blight (caused by Fusarium graminearum Schwabe [teleomorph Gibberella zeae (Schwein.) Petch]). Kharoba has been released for cultivation under both rainfed and irrigated conditions. Kharoba is the first bread wheat cultivar developed through doubled haploid breeding in Morocco.

Registration of ‘Fieldstar’ Hard Red Spring Wheat

‘Fieldstar’ (Reg. No. CV‐1067, PI 663950) (Registration. No. 6328 by the Plant Variety Registration Office, Plant Production Division, Seed Section, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Agriculture and Agri‐Food Canada [AAFC]) hard red spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) was developed and released by the Cereal Research Centre of AAFC and meets the end‐use quality specifications of the Canada western red spring wheat market class. Fieldstar is a partial backcross derivative of ‘McKenzie’, with ‘Clark’ as the donor of the Sm1 gene for midge resistance, which produces a product that reduces the palatability of developing seeds to wheat midge larvae (Sitodiplosis mosellana Géhin). Fieldstar is adapted to the eastern wheat growing regions of the Canadian prairies as determined by the Central Bread Wheat Cooperative Registration Test in 2004, 2005, and 2006. For registration testing, the performance of Fieldstar was estimated using the varietal blend Fieldstar VB, which consisted of 90% Fieldstar and 10% ‘Waskada’. The grain yield of Fieldstar was similar to that of the highest‐yielding checks, McKenzie and ‘Superb’, and expressed resistance to leaf rust (caused by Puccinia triticina Eriks.) and stem rust (caused by P. graminis Pers.:Pers. f. sp. tritici Eriks. E. Henn.) and intermediate resistance to common bunt [caused by Tilletia tritici (Bjerk.) R. Wolff and T. laevis Kuhn in Rabenh.], loose smut [caused by Ustilago tritici (Pers.) Rostr.], and Fusarium head blight [FHB; caused by Fusarium graminearum Schwabe; teleomorph Gibberella zeae (Schwein.) Petch]. Fieldstar was released because of its combination of high yield, resistance to wheat midge, and intermediate resistance to FHB.

Obviation of Wheat Resistance to the Hessian Fly Through Systemic Induced Susceptibility

Unlike most documented plant-insect interactions, Hessian fly-resistance [Mayetiola destructor (Say)] in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is initiated by a gene-for-gene recognition event in which plants carrying a specific R gene recognize salivary effectors encoded by a corresponding larval avirulence gene. However, dual infestation resulting from oviposition by virulent insects from 5 d before to 3 d after oviposition by avirulent insects on the same host plant, lead to systemic induced susceptibility, obviation of resistance, and ultimately the survival of both virulent and genetically avirulent progeny to adulthood. Simultaneous oviposition allowed greater survival of avirulent progeny than ovipositions separated by larger intervals. Because of the induction of plant resistance, hatch of avirulent larvae before virulent was more detrimental to rate of development than hatch of virulent before avirulent larvae. Obviation of resistance was not localized to the leaf being attacked by the virulent larvae, but also functioned across spatial distance into younger leaves. This research suggests that virulent Hessian fly larvae directly suppress the defense response of wheat, thus providing a refuge for avirulent genotypes, preserving diversity in field populations and increasing durability of deployed resistance genes.

Evaluation and Haplotype Analysis of Elite Synthetic Hexaploid Wheat Lines for Resistance to Hessian Fly

ABSTRACTSynthetic hexaploid wheat (SHW), derived from the hybrids between tetraploid wheat (Triticum turgidum L.) and Tausch's goatgrass (Aegilops tauschii Coss.), is an excellent source of resistance genes for various pests of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). The objectives of this study were to evaluate the elite SHW lines developed at the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center for resistance to Hessian fly and to postulate the resistance genes present in the resistance lines. A total of 118 elite SHW lines and 35 durum wheat parents were evaluated for resistance to the Great Plains (GP) biotype of the Hessian fly. Fifty‐two of the SHW lines were highly or moderately resistant to Hessian fly. Since all of the durum parents were susceptible, the resistance genes in these SHW lines were derived from the A. tauschii D genome. The 52 SHW lines were haplotyped using eight polymerase chain reaction (PCR)‐based markers closely linked to five resistance genes (H13, H22, H23, H26, and H32) previously identified in A. tauschii. The marker analysis revealed that 32 resistant SHW lines shared haplotypes with the wheat lines containing the five known resistance genes. Nineteen resistant SHW lines had different haplotypes, suggesting that these lines may contain new genes for resistance to Hessian fly. The resistant SHW lines identified in this study will be useful for the development of wheat cultivars resistant to the Hessian fly as well as for genetic and evolutionary studies of resistance genes.

Four Common Insects of Durum Wheat Cultivations in Western Macedonia, Greece

The purpose of this study was to monitor population fluctuations of various species of Diptera during the growing season of durum wheat, in years 2009 and 2010. The most abundant Hymenoptera species was also included in the study as a control species. The species studied were Cephus pygmaeus, Haplodiplosis marginata, Mayetiola destructor, and Chlorops pumilionis. Samplings of insects were taken in eight periods to cover the late stages of durum wheat. Measurements were made every about 100 m in the field, with five wheat plants per sample, from 10 different places. Total insect individuals on each wheat plant were counted. Maximum number of individuals per plant reached 6-7 insects, except for C. pumilionis which showed only 3–5 individuals. Year X sampling period interaction was also found in some cases, indicating different populations' fluctuations across years. The relatively low populations found in our study may indicate low level of danger on crop production, but the unstable populations of the most multitudinous insect species H. marginata and C. pygmaeus may cover a possible danger, especially for species H. marginata which, in specific years, can be found in great numbers causing severe damages on wheat crops. Combination of pests may result in significant damages and a total recording procedure must be practiced.

Utilization of mechanical compression as a disinfestation technique for Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor (Say)) in timothy hay: field test.

Baled timothy hay underwent testing at a hay processing plant in Canada to determine if mechanical compression (rebaling) could be used as a disinfestation protocol for Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor (Say)) puparia. ?Pressure sensitive films were randomly placed throughout the hay material, on the chamber walls, and in different orientations, to assess the hay compaction unit

Effects of the 4N<sup>v</sup> chromosome from Aegilops ventricosa on agronomic and quality traits in bread wheat

Advanced wheat lines carrying the Hessian fly resistance gene H27 were obtained by backcrossing the wheat/Aegilops ventricosa introgression line, H-93-33, to commercial wheat cultivars as recurrent parents. The Acph-N<sup>v</sup>1 marker linked to the gene H27 on the 4N<sup>v</sup> chromosome of this line was used for marker assisted selection. Advanced lines were evaluated for Hessian fly resistance in field and growth chamber tests, and for other agronomic traits during several crop seasons at different localities of Spain. The hessian fly resistance levels of lines carrying the 4N<sup>v </sup>chromosome introgression (4D/4N<sup>v</sup> substitution and recombination lines that previously were classified by in situ hybridisation) were high, but always lower than that of their Ae. ventricosa progenitor. Introgression lines had higher grain yields in infested field trials than those without the 4N<sup>v</sup> chromosome and their susceptible parents, but lower grain yields under high yield potential conditions. The 4N<sup>v</sup> introgression was also associated with later heading, and lower tiller and grain numbers/m<sup>2</sup>. In addition, it was associated with longer and more lax spikes, and higher values of grain weight and grain protein content. However, the glutenin and gliadin expression, as well as the bread-making performance, were similar to those of their recurrent parents.

Population Structure and Spatial Influence of Agricultural Variables on Hessian Fly Populations in the Southeastern United States

Population structure dictates the evolution of each population, and thus, the species as a whole. Incorporating spatial variables with population genetic statistics allows for greater discovery beyond traditional population genetics alone and can inform management decisions. The understanding of population structure in Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say), a pest of wheat, has been limited in the past. We scored 14 microsatellite loci from 12 collections of Hessian fly in the southeastern United States. Through Bayesian clustering analysis, we found two major populations of Hessian fly covering the entire southeastern United States. We evaluated correlations between agriculturally significant spatial variables and population genetic differentiation to test if genetic structure has an ecological component in a wheat agro-ecosystem. Our results suggest the total amount of alternative host plants in the county may be driving some genetic differentiation. Although planting date may also be influential, geographic distance, mean annual temperature, and harvested wheat for grain do not seem to be contributing factors. The ecological or spatial component to population structure, however, may be minimal compared to factors such as genetic drift.

Effects of antinutrient proteins on Hessian fly (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) larvae

One strategy to enhance the durability of Hessian fly resistance (R) genes in wheat is to combine them with transgenes for resistance. To identify potential transgenes for resistance a protocol for rapidly screening the proteins they encode for efficacy toward resistance is required. However, the Hessian fly is an obligate parasite of wheat and related grasses. Consequently, no protocol for in vitro delivery of antinutrient or toxic proteins to feeding larvae is available. We report here the development of a Hessian fly in plantatranslocation (HIT) feeding assay and the evaluation of eight lectins and the Bowman–Birk serine proteinase inhibitor for potential in transgenic resistance. Of the antinutrient proteins evaluated, Galanthus nivalis L. agglutinin (GNA), commonly termed snowdrop lectin, was the most efficacious. Ingestion of GNA caused a significant reduction in growth of Hessian fly larvae, disruption of midgut microvilli, and changes in transcript level of genes involved in carbohydrate metabolism, digestion, detoxification, and stress response. These effects of GNA are discussed from the perspective of larval Hessian fly physiology.

Hessian Fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say), Populations in the North of Tunisia: Virulence, Yield Loss Assessment and Phenological Data

Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say), is a destructive pest of wheat worldwide and an endemic pest in Tunisia. Two natural populations of this insect from the North of Tunisia were evaluated, in the field, for their virulence, based on response developed by bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars carrying H3, H5, H6, H7H8, H11, H13 and H16 resistance genes. H11, H13 and H16 showed a high effectiveness against both populations; therefore, their implication in Hessian fly breeding programs would be of interest. The level of infestation, as well as the yield loss, was assessed, based on the percentage of infested plants and variation in growth parameters due to infestation. The percentage of infested plants, over a 2-yr period in Mateur, averaged 18.82% for durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. subsp. durum (Desf.) Husn.) and 32.50% for bread wheat. For the improved durum wheat cv. Karim used as reference, the plant height, number of internodes, number of productive tillers per plant, and 100-seed weight were negatively affected by infestation, while the number of tillers per plant was positively affected. Aiming to update information about the annual number of the fly generations occurring on wheat, we surveyed infestation in Jedeida. At least three Hessian fly generations were detected on bread wheat and durum wheat. Continued regular surveying of Hessian fly populations in terms of virulence, impact on yield and annual generations is required for optimal deployment of resistance genes and integrated management of Hessian fly across all wheat production areas.

Hessian fly-associated bacteria: transmission, essentiality, and composition.

Plant-feeding insects have been recently found to use microbes to manipulate host plant physiology and morphology. Gall midges are one of the largest groups of insects that manipulate host plants extensively. Hessian fly (HF, Mayetiola destructor) is an important pest of wheat and a model system for studying gall midges. To examine the role of bacteria in parasitism, a systematic analysis of bacteria associated with HF was performed for the first time. Diverse bacteria were found in different developmental HF stages. Fluorescent in situ hybridization detected a bacteriocyte-like structure in developing eggs. Bacterial DNA was also detected in eggs by PCR using primers targeted to different bacterial groups. These results indicated that HF hosted different types of bacteria that were maternally transmitted to the next generation. Eliminating bacteria from the insect with antibiotics resulted in high mortality of HF larvae, indicating that symbiotic bacteria are essential for the insect to survive on wheat seedlings. A preliminary survey identified various types of bacteria associated with different HF stages, including the genera Enterobacter, Pantoea, Stenotrophomonas, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Ochrobactrum, Acinetobacter, Alcaligenes, Nitrosomonas, Arcanobacterium, Microbacterium, Paenibacillus, and Klebsiella. Similar bacteria were also found specifically in HF-infested susceptible wheat, suggesting that HF larvae had either transmitted bacteria into plant tissue or brought secondary infection of bacteria to the wheat host. The bacteria associated with wheat seedlings may play an essential role in the wheat-HF interaction.

Changes in Phytohormones and Fatty Acids in Wheat and Rice Seedlings in Response to Hessian Fly (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) Infestation

Phytohormones and fatty acids (FAs) play important roles in plant resistance to insects and pathogens. In this study, we investigated the similarities and differences in the accumulations of phytohormones and FAs in the resistant wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) 'Molly' and the nonhost rice (Oryza sativa L.) 'Niponbare' in responses to Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), larval attacks. Using chemical ionization-gas-chromatography/mass spectrometry, we analyzed the concentrations of 13 phytohomones and FAs at the attack site of wheat and rice plants at 1, 6, 24, or 48 h after the initial attack. Hessian fly attack resulted in increases of salicylic acid (SA), 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid (OPDA), palmitic acid (FA16:0), but a decrease of abscisic acid in both wheat and rice plants. In addition, the accumulation of jasmonic acid (JA) increased, whereas the accumulation of cinnamic acid (CA) decreased in wheat plants, but no changes were observed in the accumulation of JA, and the accumulation of CA increased in rice plants after Hessian fly attack. However, the accumulations of benzoic acid, strearic acid (FA18:0), and oleic acid (FA18:1) increased in rice plants, but no changes were observed in wheat plants after Hessian fly attack. Hessian fly-induced changes were more rapid in wheat plants in comparison with those in rice plants. Our study suggests that SA and OPDA may be involved in resistance of wheat and rice plants to Hessian fly and that the R gene-mediated resistance responses are more rapid than nonhost resistance responses.

No Fitness Cost for Wheat's <I>H</I> Gene-Mediated Resistance to Hessian Fly (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Resistance (R) genes have a proven record for protecting plants against biotic stress. A problem is parasite adaptation via Avirulence (Avr) mutations, which allows the parasite to colonize the R gene plant. Scientists hope to make R genes more durable by stacking them in a single cultivar. However, stacking assumes that R gene-mediated resistance has no fitness cost for the plant. We tested this assumption for wheat's resistance to Hessian fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae). Our study included ten plant fitness measures and four wheat genotypes, one susceptible, and three expressing either the H6, H9, or H13 resistance gene. Because R gene-mediated resistance has two components, we measured two types of costs: the cost of the constitutively-expressed H gene, which functions in plant surveillance, and the cost of the downstream induced responses, which were triggered by Hessian fly larvae rather than a chemical elicitor. For the constitutively expressed Hgene, some measures indicated costs, but a greater number of measures indicated benefits of simply expressing the H gene. For the induced resistance, instead of costs, resistant plants showed benefits of being attacked. Resistant plants were more likely to survive attack than susceptible plants, and surviving resistant plants produced higher yield and quality. We discuss why resistance to the Hessian fly has little or no cost and propose that tolerance is important, with compensatory growth occurring after H gene-mediated resistance kills the larva. We end with a caution: Given that plants were given good growing conditions, fitness costs may be found under conditions of greater biotic or abiotic stress.

Volatile compounds from non-preferred wheat spikes reduce oviposition by Sitodiplosis mosellana

AbstractFemale wheat midges, Sitodiplosis mosellana (Géhin) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), were provided with wheat spikes, Triticum aestivum L. (Poaceae), for oviposition while being exposed to air that had passed over wheat spikes of contrasting genotype or growth stage. Spikes of postanthesis ‘Roblin’ and preanthesis ‘Key 10’ are known to deter oviposition. Volatiles emitted by these spikes suppressed oviposition on preanthesis ‘Roblin', which is preferred for oviposition. Volatiles emitted by spikes of preanthesis ‘Roblin’ did not increase oviposition on preanthesis ‘Key 10'. Reduced oviposition on a resistant genotype and on a deterrent growth stage of wheat is consistent with production of deterrent volatiles rather than a lack of stimulatory volatiles.

Use of a Nuclear Marker to Assess Population Structure in Hessian Fly (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Abstract Mayetiola destructor (Say) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), the Hessian fly, is distributed across most of the wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)-growing areas of the world and can cause significant yield losses in wheat production. Native to the Old World, Hessian fly reportedly came to the United States in a single introduction during the Revolutionary War and has since spread across North America. Using a nuclear marker, the population structure of North American Hessian fly was examined with regard to collections from the Old World. White intron 1 (wint1) showed insignificant recombination within collections and a large number of informative characters, allowing its use as a phylogenetic marker. Thirty-three alleles of wint1 were identified. Population structure analyses divided the collections into four populations: Middle East, Old World I, Old World II, and New World. More variation was found within populations than between populations, indicating that gene flow exists between local areas. However, shared ancestral characteristics resulted in mixing of Hessian fly collections into more than one population as revealed by the population structure reconstruction. North American and Spanish collections were a mixture of the Old and New World populations. With the sharing of ancestral characters as well as wint1 alleles, this study indicates that the North American lineage may actually be associated to an unsampled location, perhaps northern Europe. If the single introduction hypothesis were correct, then both lineages would have to have been present at the time of introduction.

Comparison of proteomes between wheat-rye translocations and their recurrent parents

2BS.2RL wheat-rye translocations have presented phenotypes of improved agronomic performance, such as Hessian fly resistance. The main objective of this work was to use two-dimensional electrophoresis to identify the proteomic differences between 2BS.2RL wheat-rye translocations and their recurrent parents. The investigation of seeds revealed line-specific protein spots, such as α-amylase inhibitor 0.19. More diverse expression patterns were observed in leaves than in seeds. Protein spots found specifically in 2BS.2RL, but not in non-2RL translocations were identified as β-glucosidase and vacuolar ATP synthase subunit B2, demonstrating the effects of translocated rye chromatin 2RL on common wheat genetic background. When the leaf protein spots were compared in the control and Hessian fly-infested near-isogenic line (NIL) (2BS.2RL), many down-regulated proteins and specific proteins, such as β-glucosidase, were detected in the latter.

Induced epidermal permeability modulates resistance and susceptibility of wheat seedlings to herbivory by Hessian fly larvae

Salivary secretions of neonate Hessian fly larvae initiate a two-way exchange of molecules with their wheat host. Changes in properties of the leaf surface allow larval effectors to enter the plant where they trigger plant processes leading to resistance and delivery of defence molecules, or susceptibility and delivery of nutrients. To increase understanding of the host plant's response, the timing and characteristics of the induced epidermal permeability were investigated. Resistant plant permeability was transient and limited in area, persisting just long enough to deliver defence molecules before gene expression and permeability reverted to pre-infestation levels. The abundance of transcripts for GDSL-motif lipase/hydrolase, thought to contribute to cuticle reorganization and increased permeability, followed the same temporal profile as permeability in resistant plants. In contrast, susceptible plants continued to increase in permeability over time until the entire crown of the plant became a nutrient sink. Permeability increased with higher infestation levels in susceptible but not in resistant plants. The ramifications of induced plant permeability on Hessian fly populations are discussed.