Western Museums Research Articles

Can We Accept Today That the Museum Continues to Convey Colonial Ideology? An Analysis of Two Fundamental European Instruments to Decolonize Museums

The article intends to broaden the debate about colonial collections and their potential repatriation. In some countries, official guidelines on how to deal with colonial collections are long overdue and many museums seem to find that inaction is the perfect strategy. Supported by the latest developments at European level and offering a detailed analysis of the Macron Report and the recommendations of the Deutscher Museumsbund (German Museums Association), this article seeks to provide food for thought that will serve as an in-depth, wide-ranging debate about colonial collections. It makes a comprehensive review of these two European instruments to implement ethical care for colonial collections. Admitting that colonialism has permeated all modern institutions, including the museum, and that many collection items located in Western museums are historically and culturally “sensitive” underscores the moral and ethical obligation that each museum must face, inter alia, as a way to contribute to the deconstruction of a colonial ideology which is perpetuated far beyond the formal end of colonialism. The article aims, furthermore, to demonstrate how awareness and research are the cornerstones of the process that will allow us to rethink colonial collections and document them from a less dated perspective.

The Concept of Aspectism in the Traditional Arts of the Bamileke People of Western Cameroon: Myth or Reality?

Aspectism is an aesthetic approach that underscores the significance of visual appearance in artistic works, highlighting elements such as shape, color, texture, and other visual components as crucial for appreciating and interpreting art. This artistic style prioritizes the visual and formal aspects of artworks as channels for communication and creative expression. The Bamileke art object, encompassing both physical and spiritual dimensions, aligns with the principles of aspectism. Notably, many objects from this cultural milieu are featured in Western museums due to their striking physical beauty. This observation prompts questions regarding the applicability of aspectism to Bamileke art and whether it represents a myth or a reality. This inquiry delves into the intrinsic nature of Bamileke arts and the broader grassfields region. To address these concerns, the study unfolds in three key stages: introducing the concept of aspectism, delineating its artistic characteristics, and examining its manifestation across various artistic mediums within the Bamileke community. Additionally, the study explores the philosophical underpinnings of beauty within this population. The study concludes that the Bamileke art object embodies two distinct entities: the physical, or apparent aspect, and the symbolic or functional aspect. While aspectism emphasizes the apparent aspect, the argument can be made that the notion of aspectism within Bamileke arts leans more towards being a myth than a reality.

Black Feminist Museographical Poetics in “Voyage of the Sable Venus”

ABSTRACT This article builds on existing scholarship on literary encounters with the museum in its treatment of Robin Coste Lewis’s poem, “Voyage of the Sable Venus” (2015), as exemplifying the contemporary state of museal engagement in literary production. The poem delivers an account of the history of the Black female form in Western art—a presence Lewis argues, has gone overlooked, both intentionally and unintentionally, by Western museums. Sourced from an inestimable number of museum labels interpreting objects rendered in the Black female form, the poem not only brings the ubiquity of this form into view but presents a method of literary production that this article theorizes as “Black feminist museographical poetics.” In its heightened focus on museography, otherwise referred to as museum text, Lewis’s work adopts a poetics shaped by historical knowledge of the museum’s role in generating perceptions of Black femininity premised on erasure, dehumanization, and subjugation. Lewis’s poem reveals biases toward Black femininity encoded in the museography, through which museum visitors interpret cultural artifacts. This article argues that through her unconventional arrangement of museum labels, Lewis appeals to the nature of museal texts as inherently poetic sources of information, marked by accounts of racial and sexual difference.

“Nada puede dar una idea de ella sino es la vista”

Early on and after it reached its political independence, the elites in charge of the Republic of Chile made various attempts to create a museum for the country, which finally became a reality in 1841 under the title “Museo Nacional” (National Museum). This article examines the movements in the very notion of museum that circulated both among those elites and among those who undertook the task of bringing the project to fruition, identifying different shifts in its use and meaning. In a genealogical journey through the history of the Museo Nacional de Chile during the nineteenth century, this article posits that its definition was plastic in nature, which allowed it to be used for different purposes. During the first half of the century, this plasticity enabled the hierarchization of its properties, relegating the exhibition of collections to a secondary role. During the second half of the century, however, Rudolph Philippi, its director, would lead a modernization process that would attempt to inscribe the institution under his charge in the canons of the modern Western museum. In this process, the visual consumption of collections would become intrinsic to the notion of the museum. Its “optical” nature and the importance of the visual in the ways of experiencing it would demonstrate, as I postulate here, a relationship between the museum, observational practices, and national identity. As Philippi affirmed, nothing but sight could give a person an idea of the collection of “Chilean nature.”

Problematic Archives: Documentary Knowledge of Modern Iraq between Ex- and Repatriation

The transfer of Iraq's Ba'th Party archives to the United States in the wake of the 2003 invasion triggered an ongoing debate about patrimony and the legality of the removal of government documents in military conflict. However, the appropriation of Iraq's archival heritage did not start in 2003 and does not concern international law only. Parallel to debates over restoring artifacts in Western museums to the global South, this article argues in favor of granting control of these documents to the people of Iraq. Such access would grant them the sovereignty that comes with the writing of their own history and the creation of their own archives.

Debating the Bascom controversy: revisiting the expropriation and repatriation of the Ifẹ̀ bronzes

AbstractIn 1937–38, the American doctoral candidate William R. Bascom conducted anthropological research in the sacred Yorùbá city of Ilé-Ifẹ̀, Nigeria. Bascom’s visit was a decisive moment in the history of African art, as, in 1938, he observed the chance discovery of unique copper and copper alloy heads, two of which he acquired and exported to the USA. Bascom’s actions in 1938, and his subsequent conflicts with British officials who demanded the return of the heads in the 1940s, have become matters of controversy and scholarly debate. Historian Robert Tignor and anthropologist Simon Ottenberg have presented contrasting arguments regarding the affair. This article draws on material from several archives to shed further light on this discussion, resolve remaining areas of dispute, and explore what the study of this controversy tells us about the nature and practice of anthropology, the impacts of Western exhibitions of African art, and early cultural preservation and repatriation efforts of the late colonial period. At a time when colonial-era collecting practices are facing increased critical re-examination, and with intensified calls for the repatriation of Nigerian cultural patrimony in Western museums, this article reflects on how the study of this controversy contributes to present restitution efforts.

Who Owns the Past? Through the Lens of the Bird of Prophecy

The colonial era saw the forced removal of thousands of objects of African cultural patrimony. In the decades since the end of the colonial era on the African continent, innumerable calls have been made for the restitution of plundered and looted objects of cultural patrimony currently held by major western museums and private collectors. Through a case study of one such object, the Idiophone: Bird of Prophecy, this paper asks who should have jurisdiction in representing objects of cultural patrimony and the historical narratives in which they are rooted, and considers the role that the return of objects plays in the process of decolonization. This paper also presents an analysis of arguments against, and obstacles to, repatriation, in order to argue that museums today have a responsibility to repatriate objects acquired through looting or other exchanges which exploited colonial indigenous power dynamics.

Mammalian type material from Cameroon in the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin

Historical data, combined with current data on species distribution, are a valuable resource for tracking changes in biodiversity and can potentially be applied to developing models in conservation biology and designing and assessing conservation strategies. Historical data supporting current knowledge on the natural history of the African continent are primarily held in Western museums. The Zoologisches Museum Berlin (ZMB), which is today part of the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin (MfN), is the primary source of reference for zoological collections from former German colonial territories including Cameroon. Here, we document for the first time a catalogue of the type material in the mammal collection of the MfN from the point of view of a geographical region. The type collection includes 91 type specimens identified in the catalogues as originating from German ‘Kamerun’ and which correspond to 31 described species, of which 12 are currently accepted (valid) species names. Of the 31 described species, 21 are represented by holotypes, three para-holotype series, one para-lectotype series and six syntype series. We hope that this first analysis of zoological objects, based on geographical location, will lead to similar research on other geographical locations of collection. This could provide more information on the provenance of collections and on colonial collecting practices, as well as contribute to the accessibility of collections in Western museums.

Leaving Javanese Shadow Theatre (Wayang Kulit) Religiously Unlabelled

Wayang Kulit, the shadow theatre tradition on the island of Java, combines ancient Javanese and Indian myths in a Muslim context and therefore poses as a wonderful example of how religious traditions intertwine with works of art. This article explores the religious appropriation and acculturation at work in the history of Javanese shadow theatre. It also grants a behind-the-scenes look at the curatorial challenges involved in preparing a Wayang Kulit exhibition at the Museum Rietberg in Zurich, in particular how to convey the complex intermingling of cultures and religions so that audiences can understand it. Finally, we call into question some narratives and concepts traditionally used in Western museums to tell the story of Southeast Asian art.

Contesting the Lonely Queen

AbstractThe bust of Nefertiti symbolizes the transformation of the Egyptian heritage where the West has become the rightful heir of Ancient Egypt through a system of knowledge production that controls the Egyptian cultural heritage in Western Museum collections. This article explores the intricacies of the entanglement of cultural property with heritage politics projected on the famous bust. It is the best example to discuss decolonization and its ethical implications on museum practice in the twenty-first century and Egyptology as an area study. The article discusses the legal and ethical framework of the bust of Nefertiti’s discovery, export, and current exhibition and its complex receptions in Germany and Egypt.

‘Decolonising’ Tropical Collections: Cultural Material from Papua New Guinea in Museums

Museums are western institutions that house the remnants of colonisation. They are fraught institutions in which cultural heritage issues arise due to the differences in western and indigenous societies. Most tropical collections were acquired during colonisation through unjust means by government administrators, missionaries, and dealers. In more recent times the ‘decolonisation’ of museums has begun, with developing nations and source communities demanding the repatriation and restitution of their cultural material from museums. This signifies political redress and self-determination from the effects of colonisation on former colonised nations and those that are still experiencing colonial occupation. This paper focuses on the collection and removal of cultural material from Papua New Guinea (PNG) during the colonial era. The paper discusses views among the Papua New Guinean diaspora in Australia on museums and PNG collections, and argues that cultural heritage issues must be addressed before the work of decolonisation can begin. Museums that house Papua New Guinean collections must follow the cultural protocols of the relevant Papua New Guinean source communities. Decolonisation will require an overhaul of the western museum structure and principles, and Papua New Guinean vision, values and voices must be at the forefront of this work.

Politicized aesthetics: Questioning the neutrality of museum architecture and exhibition design

Despite three decades of postcolonial critique and repatriations, most collections of displaced cultural objects are still hosted in the controversial architectural spaces of Western museums whose design shifts from an allegedly neutral ‘white cube’ to questionable forms of recontextualization. The contradiction between exhibited cultural objects and gallery space is primarily embodied by the history of the host buildings, and in this setting, the Western aesthetics of architecture and exhibition design practices embed a subtle form of neo-colonization reinforced by the rhetoric of the impossibility of repatriation. Through a critical review, this paper discusses the equivocal use of both ‘neutral’ aesthetics and recontextualized spaces for displaying African art/artifacts in Western museums. I offer not a solution but a set of derived principles through which we can start a conversation on decolonized design practices. If aesthetics are by-products of a specific cultural, political, and socio-economic context, how could the hosting architectural space respond to the aesthetics of cultural objects – if a response is even possible.

CONTEXTUALISING THE CONTESTED: XR AS EXPERIMENTAL MUSEOLOGY

Museums are becoming increasingly multi-medial experiences and with the emergence of the metaverse (Coates, 2021), immersive technologies (XR) are projected to form an important part of future museum experiences. With options to provide a multiplicity of non-hierarchical information, support individualised paths through exhibitions, and experiential visits, XR has the potential to help keep visitors engaged around complex and nuanced information (Mulcahy, 2017). Working on devices that most museum visitors already own, XR technologies present a promising move towards more inclusivity, accessibility, and active audience engagement. Contributing to research on the multiple uses of XR in UK museums, this paper focuses on how XR can be operationalised to address contested displays in Western museums. Using an external app for the British Museum as an example, this paper discusses the challenges arising from this intersection, including the entrenchment of immersive technologies in colonial power dichotomies, the risks of performative virtual interventions, and the conflicting agencies museums, companies, and individuals must navigate in this context. The author suggests, as a possible experimental approach, wiki-based XR interactions which engage with non-Eurocentric epistemologies and are co-created by communities commonly disenfranchised in Western museum spaces.

CONTEXTUALISING THE CONTESTED: XR AS EXPERIMENTAL MUSEOLOGY

Museums are becoming increasingly multi-medial experiences and with the emergence of the metaverse (Coates, 2021), immersive technologies (XR) are projected to form an important part of future museum experiences. With options to provide a multiplicity of non-hierarchical information, support individualised paths through exhibitions, and experiential visits, XR has the potential to help keep visitors engaged around complex and nuanced information (Mulcahy, 2017). Working on devices that most museum visitors already own, XR technologies present a promising move towards more inclusivity, accessibility, and active audience engagement. Contributing to research on the multiple uses of XR in UK museums, this paper focuses on how XR can be operationalised to address contested displays in Western museums. Using an external app for the British Museum as an example, this paper discusses the challenges arising from this intersection, including the entrenchment of immersive technologies in colonial power dichotomies, the risks of performative virtual interventions, and the conflicting agencies museums, companies, and individuals must navigate in this context. The author suggests, as a possible experimental approach, wiki-based XR interactions which engage with non-Eurocentric epistemologies and are co-created by communities commonly disenfranchised in Western museum spaces.

Breathing Room: Working Principles of Independent Art Spaces in African Cities

Breathing Room: Working Principles of Independent Art Spaces in African Cities

Untangling Blackness in Greek Antiquity

Untangling Blackness in Greek Antiquity

Representing the pain of others

This article describes some of the techniques museums use to represent the suffering body in exhibitions. Some display human remains, but much more common, especially in Western museums, are stand-ins for the body. Manikins take many forms, including the wax museum’s hyperrealistic representations, the history museum’s neutral grey figures and the expressionistic figures that represent enslaved people in many recent exhibits. Symbolic objects or artefacts from the lives of victims can serve as counterweights to telling the story of their deaths. Photographs can show horror and the machinery of death, focus attention on individual lives or recreate communities. The absence of the body can call attention to its suffering. All of these techniques can be useful for museums trying to display and teach traumatic histories, but must be used with care and caution.

The migration trajectory of the Benin Bronzes

Abstract “The contributions in this series explore the migration experience using different kinds of “data.” Our contributors use works of art, novels, songs, and movies to explore many of the same questions they generally ask in their social scientific research. What additional insights come from using arts and culture to think through the issues that concern us? What can images and notes reveal that scholarly work cannot? We also invite original stories, poems, photo essays or art works. Ideas for contributions are wholeheartedly invited at any time. Please contact Emanuela Paoletti or Peggy Levitt”. The migration trajectory of the Benin Bronzes The colonial looting of objects across Africa, Asia and Latin America and their relocation to Western museums has created an enduring form of cultural and spiritual alienation for the survivors and descendants of imperial violence. Material heritage is not simply reducible to objects from which we derive historical, aesthetic or financial value, but rather have embedded cultural and political meanings that shift over time as their context, ownership and location change. The pieces themselves become embodiments of the values and priorities of those who lay claim to them. As such, attending to their transplantations becomes a practice of critical witness to the shifting of our relations to one another through migration over time. Looking at the migratory trajectories of imperial plunder helps us make sense of the meaning and value that is accrued through various social interactions in which they are embedded, ultimately providing insight into the relationship between the looters and the looted. There is analytical purchase in thinking about looted objects through the framework of migration as it provides a well-established language and lens through which to grapple with the cultural disillusionment and denudation that results when one is cast adrift from its moorings. Writing through the migration of objects thus helps us envision the ways in which people have been progressively alienated from their culture, but also provides an opportunity to think critically and creatively about reunification, restitution and restoration of cultures foregone.

Ахеменідcькі акінаки: походження і типи

The present paper deals with a description and classification of the Achaemenid short sword akinakes. The Achaemenid akinakes was most probably influenced by the Scythians or the Sakas. Hence, the paper provides a brief discussion on other types of akinakes as well. There were longer examples of akinakes used by the Scythians, but the archaeological examples of Achaemenid akinakes and also their depictions on Achaemenid stone reliefs tend to depict short swords. Stone reliefs in Persepolis, Apadana, and other Persian sites show two types of Achaemenid short swords. One type is hung via a cord attached to an ear-shaped suspension system of the scabbard mouth, resembling the same suspension system used by Scythians and other nations influenced by them. The other type is tucked in the sash or the belt. The present paper argues that although these swords depicted on Achaemenid reliefs use two different suspension systems, they should be both considered as akinakes in the Persian cultural context. The stone reliefs show different decorative elements for each type of akinakes as well. It is not clear why some of them were left undecorated on the reliefs. It could be an artistic convention or it could be that they were wiped off due to climate changes. On the other hand, others are elaborately decorated. The paper also makes a comparative study between some Achaemenid swords kept in the National Museum of Iran and some western museums, and the akinakai depicted on Achaemenid stone reliefs. Hence, the present paper offers a new classification of Achaemenid akinakai represented on stone reliefs and compare them to some archaeological examples.

Malinowski and malacology: global value systems and the issue of duplicates.

This article situates the collecting practices of museums of natural history in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in dialogue with similar practices amongst societies in the Pacific by focusing on how European curators, dealers in natural history and Pacific Islanders shared a common fascination with Spondylus shells. In particular, this article examines the processes for turning Spondylus shells into unique or duplicate specimens. Spondylus shells were crucial for regulating gift and commercial exchanges in the societies of both regions. Famously, the anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski claimed that these shells were an essential element of the gift-based kula exchange, which helped him distinguish Western capitalist society from less developed societies without commercial trade. Yet Spondylus shells were also collected and exchanged as gifts amongst British and European naturalists in this period, performing the same roles as in Melanesia. In addition, such gift exchanges could only come into being thanks to the actions of commercially motivated dealers, located both in the Pacific and in Europe, who were the suppliers of these shells both to Melanesian participants in the kula and to Western natural historians and collectors. These observations call into question earlier arguments that equate modernity with the rise of commercial capitalism. It is instead claimed that commercial and gift exchanges were intricately connected and reliant on each other throughout the period, whether in the worlds of Western museums or in Pacific archipelagos. The act of turning Spondylus shells into unique or duplicate specimens was the key tool for regulating these exchanges.