Western Botswana Research Articles

Natural resource use and livelihoods in Botswana's Wildlife Management Areas

Global debates surrounding the management of natural resources in protected areas advocate greater involvement of local populations in order to maintain sustainable resource use and conserve biological diversity. For this involvement to be effective, and for development to be truly participatory, a deeper understanding of people's relationships with the environment is needed. This paper explores the society–environment interactions of people in a newly established Wildlife Management Area in western Botswana, illustrating the complexity and diversity of resource use and livelihoods that must be addressed by development interventions.

Participatory Conservation? Community‐based Natural Resource Management in Botswana

This paper examines the complexities of participatory conservation through a case study of the process of participation in a government funded community‐based natural resource management programme in Western Botswana. The paper argues that different stakeholders have very different views on the levels of participation taking place in particular projects. Furthermore local people find it difficult to voice their concerns about the environment and issues of sustainability given the power relations involved in this ‘participatory’process. The paper questions the accountability and motivation of the different stakeholders involved in participatory projects and suggests that implicit in the policy implementation process are mechanisms which constrain empowerment and dictate the forms of participatory conservation which can emerge. The paper concludes by reviewing the case study in the light of new policy developments in Botswana.

Livelihood Opportunity and Diversity in Kalahari Wildlife Management Areas, Botswana: Rethinking Community Resource Management

The livelihood opportunities open to people, and the diverse portfolios of activities that make up a living, are now key areas of conceptual and empirical research. Similarly, community-based natural resource management initiatives are currently receiving widespread attention in both policy and academic circles. This paper draws on research conducted in western Botswana, which examined community development and wildlife management in a Kalahari Wildlife Management Area. It focuses on the livelihood dynamics of residents living in two remote settlements in the Wildlife Management Area. These livelihood dynamics are closely linked with the complex history of resource use and conflict in the area. Hunting and gathering, two key livelihood activities, are examined in detail. The paper argues that, although the natural resource base has changed, and use of natural resources has in many cases dwindled, livelihoods based on these resources remain important in terms of cultural identity, symbolic significance and as a real and perceived safety net in times of stress. These findings have both positive and negative consequences for the proposed community-based natural resource management initiatives in the area. The dynamics of people's livelihoods are not always recognised by those implementing the changes. Community-based natural resource management projects have the potential to embrace social justice and ecological sustainability. However they also have the potential to undermine rural populations' individual and collective actions to manage their resources base and maintain viable livelihood strategies at a range of levels.

The 1998 edition of the National Geological Map of Botswana

A new National Geological Map of Botswana incorporates data acquired from a variety of sources; the map is produced as a 1:1 million hardcopy as well as in digital format. The new map shows the pre-Kalahari Group geology. The oldest rocks are exposed in eastern Botswana where three Archaean terranes are recognised: the western parts of the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe Cratons and the western part of the Limpopo Mobile Belt. All three terranes are lithologically similar but differ in their structural styles and in the timing of major thermal events. The oldest (pre-3.0 Gal high-grade metamorphic rocks are found in the Kaapvaal Craton, and the youngest in the Limpopo Mobile Belt, which appears to record Palæoproterozoic ductile shearing. Proterozoic orogenic belts, mostly concealed beneath Karoo rocks, define the western limits of the Archaean terranes and pprogressively young westwards away from the Archaean rocks. The Palwoproterozoic Magondi and Kheis Belts are well-defined by regional magnetic maps, but both are very poorly exposed in Botswana. The Kheis Belt trends due north from South Africa into central Botswana to define the western edge of the Kaapvaal Craton. The western part of the Magondi Belt, as well as all of a Mesoproterozoic (Kibaran) belt and rift are overprinted by the Neoproterozoic Damara Belt; all have pronounced northeasterly trends. During the Palæoproterozoic, there was also significant intraplate magmatism, sedimentation and deformation within the Archæan terranes. Some of the magmatism (in southeastern Botswana) was contemporaneous with, and lithologically similar to, the Bushveld Igneous Complex of South Africa. The main feature of the Mesoproterozoic geology of Botswana is a northeast trending rift that extends right across the northwest of the country and which is partly infilled with ca 1 106 Ma volcanic rocks. Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks overlie the volcanics within the rift. The various rocks are exposed along the Ghanzi Ridge and to the northeast in the Chobe District. New detailed airborne magnetic surveys in northwest Botswana (Ngamiland) show the detailed geology of the northeast trending inland branch of the Damara Belt and exactly define its northwestern and southeastern boundaries. The southeastern part of the Damara Belt comprises the Mesoproterozoic volcanics of the Kgwebe Formation and the Neoproterozoic Ghanzi Group sedimentary strata. The full extent of the volcanics, and of the three formations recognised in the Ghanzi Group, is shown on the new map. Deformation of these rocks increases to the northwest where they are bounded by the tectono-stratigraphical Roibok Group. To the northwest of the Roibok Group are poorly dated granitoid rocks separated into several units that are locally overlain by carbonate-dominated sequences. A cover sequence of metasedimentary rocks with northnorthwest trending folds lies northwest of the Damara Belt. These sediments may overlie the southernmost part of the Congo Craton in the extreme northwest of Botswana. Neoproterozoic/ Lower Palæozoic sediments of the Nama Group partly infill a foreland basin to the south of the Damara belt in western Botswana. Karoo strata deposited within the Kalahari Basin underlie central Botswana. The distribution of the four major sedimentary groups, as well as of the capping basalts, is shown. The total thickness of the sediments is < 2000 m and the basalts are up to 1000 m in thickness. The sediments comprise a lower sequence (Dwyka and Ecca Groups) related to regional sagging and an upper sequence (Beaufort and Lebung Groups) that succeeded regional uplift that created intra-Karoo unconformities. Karoo sedimentation commenced towards the end of the Carboniferous Period and the basalts were extruded at about 180 Ma before Present. Wherever there have been detailed studies undertaken on the Karoo rocks, they show intense faulting that may or may not mimic structures in the pre-Karoo bedrock. The faulting appears to be post-sedimentation. No evidence was found for growth faults producing abnormal thicknesses of Karoo sediments. It is always possible to correlate the internal stratigraphy, at least at the formational level across the faults. Abnormal thicknesses of the basalts are preserved on the downthrow sides of the major faults. A major dyke swarm coeval with the extrusive basalts trends east-southeast right across north-central Botswana to cut across older structural trends. Over 200 kimberlites are shown on the new map. The kimberlites are distributed throughout Botswana in a number of separate clusters. Most of the kimberlites are of Cretaceous age. Isopachs are shown of the Kalahari Group, which is generally < 180 m in total thickness.

Proterozoic geology and regional correlation of the Ghanzi-Makunda area, western Botswana

The Ghanzi-Makunda area exposes three main Proterozoic assemblages. The oldest rocks belong to the Palaeoproterozoic (Eburnian) Okwa Basement Complex, which consists of porphyritic rhyolitic felsite and granitoids emplaced at 2055±4 Ma. A volcanic sequence named the Kgwebe volcanic complex consists of metarhyolites and metabasalts with interbedded tuff and agglomerate. These metavolcanic rocks represent a bimodal suite of continental tholeiites and high K rhyolites linked to the evolution of the Mesoproterozoic Kibaran orogenic system. Siliciclastic and carbonate rock successions of the Neoproterozoic to early Palaeozoic Ghanzi-Chobe Belt unconformably overlie the Mesoproterozoic Kgwebe volcanic complex. The Ghanzi-Chobe Supergroup comprises the Ghanzi Group and the Okwa Group. In Namibia, felsic lavas with UPb zircon ages of ca 750 Ma occur at the top of lithological units correlated to the Ghanzi Group. The deposition of the Ghanzi Group occured after 1020 Ma and before 750 Ma. In the Okwa Group, detrital zircons extracted from Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks of the Takatswaane Formation yielded the following dates: 1887±14 Ma, 1246±4 Ma, 1054±5 Ma, 627±6 Ma and 579±12 Ma. The age of 579 ± 12 Ma is considered to represent the maximum depositional age of the Okwa Group. Based on the data in this paper, as well as lithological similarities, the Ghanzi Group is correlated with the Nosib Group of the Damara Belt, while the Okwa Group is correlated with the Nama Group in Namibia.

Geophysical exploration of the Kalahari Suture Zone

Fancamp Resources Limited of Montreal, Canada, commenced exploration of the Kalahari Suture Zone in southwest Botswana in 1996, following the interpretation of airborne magnetic surveys covering 400 km of strike along the Kalahari Suture Zone. Initial focus was on mafic/ultramafic intrusions associated with the Tshane Complex as potential targets for CuNiPGM mineralization, but these targets are now considered to be too deeply buried (> 700 m) to be of economic significance at this time. The exploration focus has been redirected to several prospective large coincident magnetic/gravity anomalies. These are considered prospective targets for Olympic Dam-type CuCo mineralisation associated with alkaline intrusive complexes, and/or NiCuCoPGM mineralisation associated with basic intrusive complexes. The two most important and prospective targets are the so-called 'Great Red Spot' and Tsetseng Complex. Additional ground geophysical surveys and deep drilling are planned for the next phase of exploration. These large targets are of high priority and represent tremendous potential for mineral development in the sparsely populated area of western Botswana.

Relationship Between Lineaments and Ground Water Occurrence in Western Botswana

AbstractAsemiarid region of western Botswana, the Ghanzi‐Makunda area, is the focus of a study to determine the relationship between lineaments and well yield. This relationship is inferred from geologic maps, aerial photographs, and Landsat TM (thematic mapper) images in conjunction with a well yield map produced using indicator kriging and based on 226 globally positioned wells. A composite image of Landsat TM, digital well yield, lineament trace, and well location data, formed using a raster‐based geographic information systems (GIS) technique, visually identifies a correlation between well yield, lineament density, and darker tones on Landsat TM images. Higher fracture densities correlate positively with higher well yields. Regression analysis identifies a statistically significant correlation between distance to lineament intersections and median well yield.

Rethinking community resource management: Managing resources or managing people in western Botswana?

Increasingly complex discussions concerning North-South relations and global environmental strategies are producing debate about the links between poverty and the environment. This paper looks specifically at societal-environmental interactions under the simultaneous impacts of climatic variability and structural land-use changes. The context of these changes is provided by the establishment of Wildlife Management Areas in Botswana in 1986. The paper examines the extent to which the recent implementation of community based natural resource management projects in the Kalahari Wildlife Management Areas are changing access to, and use and management of, the natural resources of the rural populations living within these areas. These changes have important implications for the dynamics of livelihood strategies and thus the viability of resource-based livelihoods in the Kalahari environment.

The geology and regional correlation of the Proterozoic Okwa Inlier, western Botswana

The small Okwa inlier exposes four unconformity-bounded Proterozoic lithostratigraphic assemblages in the Kalahari region of central southern Africa, where the Precambrian geology is otherwise largely obscured by Phanerozoic strata. The inlier provides the only exposures in the Okwa basement, a structural block between the Archaean Kaapvaal-Zimbabwe Craton and the Late Proterozoic Damara orogen. Felsites and sericitic quartzites of the Okwa basement complex were intruded by varied granites between 2.1 and 2.0 Ga ago. Deformation of the granites to form gneisses at ∼ 1.8 Ga (D 1) was accompanied by metamorphism of pre-tectonic mafic dykes in the epidote amphibolite facies. In the Mid-Proterozoic, felsic tuffs and red sandstones of the lower Okwa group were intruded by dolerite sills, and a contemporary northeasterly dyke-swarm intruded the basement granitoids. A fracture cleavage was imposed on the lower Okwa group during folding and greenschist/low amphibolite facies metamorphism (D 2) at ∼ 1.15 Ga. The red-bed sediments of the upper Okwa group suffered only very mild deformation (D 3). The youngest assemblage is assigned to the Late Proterozoic Nama Group. It mainly consists of gently dipping, fine-grained sandstones. The Okwa basement complex is confirmed as a segment of Eburnian-aged crust which was accreted to the Archaean craton at about 1.8 Ga, probably adjacent to epicratonic sediments allied to the Magondi Supergroup of Zimbabwe or to the Olifantshoek Sequence of South Africa, although such sediments are nowhere exposed in the Okwa sector. The lower Okwa group is thought to be equivalent to volcano-sedimentary sequences such as the Sinclair Group of Namibia. The upper Okwa group can be correlated either with immediately pre-Damaran units such as the Auborus Formation of the Sinclair area, or with the Nosib and Ghanzi Groups in the early Damara Supergroup. The occurrence of Nama sediments overlying the Okwa basement seems to confirm their suspected presence beneath the Karoo Supergroup in the Ncojane-Nosop Basin of western Botswana.

Deep Seismic profiling in the Nosop Basin, Botswana: cratons, mobile belts and sedimentary basins

Deep Seismic reflection data from the Kalahari of western Botswana has been interpreted in terms of the tectonics of southern Africa. The 600 km of 12 fold data exhibit good quality reflections in the range 5–15 s TWT. The data outline the Nosop Basin, a depositional centre with greater than 10 km of Palaeozoic and younger sediments. Five prominent reflecting horizons are traced in the basement underlying the sediments. On the basis of the Seismic data, the Nosop is now interpreted as a single basin. The previous multi-basin interpretation of the aeromagnetic data -esults from features within the magnetic basement. The uppermost two basement units are interpreted as Proterozoic sediments that rest on Archean crust. The Seismic data show that the crust appears to thicken to the southeast as the Kaapvaal Craton is approached. At the same time, the sedimentary cover progressively thins suggesting that the western edge of the Kaapvaal is an extended margin. Interpreted deep crustal shear zones indicate a major terrane boundary separating the Proterozoic from the Archean. Depths to basement inferred from aeromagnetic data are consistent with the depth to the Seismic boundary associated with the top of the Archean. Some of the aeromagnetic expression may be due to Karoo volcanic intrusives in the basement. A thrust belt in the northwest of the area now buried in the mid crust is correlated with the nearby Ghanzi-Chobe belt and allows the mid-crustal layering to be dated as late Proterozoic.

Using agricultural data for timely warning to prevent the effects of drought on child nutrition in Botswana

Data from agricultural reporting systems in Botswana for the period 1978–83 are combined with data from the Ministry of Health's clinic‐based nutritional surveillance system in a retrospective analysis to investigate the usefulness of agricultural indicators for timely warning of unusually severe child malnutrition due to drought. In the arable farming areas in eastern Botswana, deficits in an index of ground water sufficiency for maize growth during the growing season (January‐April) were associated with the deviation from trend in children's malnutrition (measured by weight‐for‐age) during the peak season for malnutrition, later in the year, across regions and over time. In arid Western Botswana, as well as the East, qualitative reports on the condition of cattle were also shown to be useful predictors of child malnutrition. Decisions on the allocation of resources for relief could be made early in the year, based on agricultural data, even before confirmation from clinic data is available.

The Vegetation of the Ghanzi Area of Western Botswana

The Vegetation of the Ghanzi Area of Western Botswana

Immobilization of African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer coffer) in large numbers for veterinary research

SummaryFour hundred and eleven African buffaloes were immobilized with etorphine hydrochloride (M99, Reckitts) and sampled under difficult conditions in North Western Botswana. The buffaloes were darted from a helicopter in 36 days. 584 darts were fired giving a success rate of 70‐5%. Various age groups in three separate buffalo populations were included.The technique and difficulties encountered when working from a helicopter are described. Mechanical failure of the darting equipment was negligible.A breakdown of the costs involved is given and a comparison made with similar work carried out solely from land vehicles.

Possible late Precambrian subduction zone in South West Africa

CONTINENTAL margin plate tectonism during the late Precambrian in southern and central South West Africa and western Botswana is strongly suggested by the geographical distribution, stratigraphy, composition and evolutionary characteristics of the pre-Damara, pre-Nama formations (1,350–900 Myr old) occurring north of the Namaqua Tectonic Province1. If the distribution of these units is considered it is apparent that a unique pattern exists (Fig. 1). The data for the generalised geological map of Fig. 1 are taken from various sources2–9 and show : first, the distribution has the form of a prominent and extensive curvilinear feature or ‘arc’. Second, the arc separates the undeformed late Precambrian deposits (Nama Group10) of the stable platform area—the Kalahari Craton or Plate—from the highly deformed and metamorphosed deposits of the late Precambrian Damara orogenic belt, suggesting that the arc occupies a marginal cratonic position, and third, the trend of the arc and arc structures (such as major faulting) parallels that of the Damaran structural trends, suggesting a possible relationship between the geotectonic development of the arc and the Damaran Orogeny (see Fig. 1).

The tectonic generation of the Limpopo Mobile Belt, and a definition of its western extremity

Abstract A new mechanism is suggested for the generation of the interference fold pattern which characterizes the Limpopo Mobile Belt. The mechanism is directly related to shear movement along the Tuli-Sabi Shear Zone, renamed the Tuli-Sabi Straightening Zone. The mobile belt is regarded as a taphrogenic lineament (McConnell, 1974) and its generation is compatible with the tectonic environment active in Proterozoic times according to Sutton and Watson (1974). Field evidence shows that the Tuli-Sabi Straightening Zone dies out in Botswana at Moshakabela, and it is reasoned that the mobile belt as a whole also disappears in this vicinity. It does not extend into central and western Botswana beneath the Karroo and Kalahari cover. Detailed examination of ERTS-1 imagery of northeastern Botswana strengthens these deductions. The Tuli-Sabi Straightening Zone and the characteristic fold patterns of the mobile belt can be seen quite clearly on the satellite imagery. Furthermore, the Tuli-Sabi Straightening Zone appears to be displaced southwards at the international boundary between Botswana and Rhodesia. The existence of a fold belt trending about N150° superimposed on the Limpopo Mobile Belt in the west of the area is postulated which is not the Shashe Mobile Belt (Crockett, 1967).

Aspects of administration in Western Botswana

(1970). Aspects of administration in Western Botswana. African Studies: Vol. 29, No. 3, pp. 169-182.