Weak Ones Research Articles

Dialectics of War as a Natural Phenomenon: Existential Perspective

Due to natural processes of movements of opposites that interact with one another in equal forces, the universe is naturally considered an arena of conflicts. As the law of the universe continues to maintain everything in motion, each matter in the ecosystem strives to protect itself in given existential struggles within necessary conflicts. Therefore, the fundamental law of nature is the protection of life (self-preservation) which is often realized through self-defence. It then explains why humans engage themselves in conflicts; not necessarily to bring peace but to survive and maintain themselves in existence. Hence, war is motivated by the innate drive for self-defence and maintenance of self in existence guided by a natural instinct for survival. From conception to death, humans continue to struggle for survival and that entails overcoming conflicts and adversities of life. Thus, war can be considered as having a genetic foundation. This is evidenced in the works of evolutionary theorists. The Darwinian ethological theory tenaciously holds that humans, just like other organisms, struggle to survive, but this is influenced by natural selection which favours the stronger species against the weaker ones. While the stronger ones pass on their inheritable genes to the next generation for maintenance of their species in existence, the weaker ones die off. Hence, the survival of the fittest. This position was very much supported by the Malthusian theory of over-population alert against the limited human resources which demonstrates the constant fight for food in order to survive. The Nietzschean Superman, Marxian class struggle, Heraclitan notion of change, and so on, all cling to the idea that the universe is a violent arena. Consequently, the protection of life has an important moral value. By implication, self-defence is right and justified even if it involves war. Therefore, it is ethical to push through; to defeat the adversary.

The Grammatical Stance of the Authors of Hawashi Kitab As-Sibawayh Toward his Opinion on the Grammatical Indication of Dual and the Plural of the Masculine Noun

Objectives: The research aims to assess the stance of advanced scholars towards Sibawayh's views, examining their agreement or disagreement and the subsequent impact on later grammarians. The goal is to contribute to the enrichment of grammatical studies in general.
 Methods: The study employs a descriptive and analytical approach to discuss the issue. It presents the attitudes of grammarians towards Sibawayh's statements, scrutinizing and favoring the strong ones while rejecting the weak ones. The grammatical position according to Sibawayh's statements is examined, comparing them with the views of commentators and other grammarians who supported or contradicted him. The grammarians' perspectives are carefully documented, even if not found in their available books, indicating sources with phrases such as "attributed to" when applicable.
 Results: Sibawayh's opinions on the parsing of the dual and the sound masculine plural were diverse, reflecting more than one perspective. After careful examination, it becomes evident that his understanding was either incorrect or subject to misconceptions. The correct interpretation, as deduced from his statements, indicates parsing with letters in the nominative, accusative, and genitive cases. However, the scholars who wrote annotations (Al Hawashi) contradicted Sibawayh's opinion and offered corrections.
 Conclusion: Establishing a clear stance for any grammarian, especially someone of Sibawayh's stature, on grammatical issues holds significant importance, given the potential impact on the grammar lesson. The research recommends a thorough investigation of Sibawayh's opinions from his own works or those of respected grammarians.

Status of carnitine and circulating amino acids and its association with pre-frailty, sarcopenia and diet in an Uruguayan older population

BACKGROUND: Frailty is a clinical-biological syndrome in older adults that carries an increased risk for poor health outcomes. Biomarkers of disability are being studied and some acylcarnitines and amino acids are part of the predictive models. OBJECTIVE: To characterize the status of L-carnitine, some acylcarnitines and amino acids and relate them to frailty, sarcopenia and diet in a community-dwelling Uruguayan older population. METHODS: Participants were enrolled and assessed through a multi-step process, that included frailty and sarcopenia criteria. L-carnitine, its acyl derivatives and amino acids were determined in blood by LC-MS/MS and dietary intake by a 24-h recall and a food frequency questionnaire. RESULTS: Sixty-three older adults were enrolled, and 54 completed the initial assessment. Pre-frailty criteria were fulfilled by 41 participants and frailty only by one. No nutritional indicators of undernutrition were found. Probable sarcopenia was found in 20 cases. Males consumed more total meat and red meat than women. Hexanoylcarnitine levels were higher in pre-frail/frail individuals and in weak ones. Analysis by sex showed a distinct pattern between gender, being significant only for weak females. Methionine also showed some differences between sexes. Weak males presented significantly higher levels of methionine, whereas weak females showed significantly lower ones. CONCLUSIONS: No associations were found for diet components and L-carnitine, acylcarnitines and amino acids values, except for the percentage of animal protein that was higher in weak males. The clinical impact of these results needs further investigation.

ГЛОБАЛЬНА БАГАТОПОЛЯРНІСТЬ: НОВІ МОЖЛИВОСТІ Й ЗАГРОЗИ ДЛЯ РОЗВИТКУ УКРАЇНСЬКОГО ЕКСПОРТУ

Одним з актуальних напрямів сучасної економічної науки є передбачення наслідків глобальної багатополярності. Їх аналіз у сферах міжнародної політики і міжнародного торговельного права дав підстави для висунення припущення, що глобальна багатополярність створює як нові можливості, так і додаткові загрози для розвитку менших економік, що розвиваються (smaller developing economies). Для перевірки припущення на основі даних, зібраних у сфері економіки, запропоновано ці можливості й загрози проаналізувати як сильні й слабкі торговельні стимули, що формують країни – нові реальні й потенційні полюси глобального зростання при закупівлі в менших економіках, що розвиваються, сировини і продукції підвищеної технологічної складності. Для реалізації цього наукового методу розроблено набір методологічних і методичних підходів для уточнення переліку й рейтингування реальних і потенційних полюсів глобального зростання, оцінювання їх часток у закупівлі продукції підвищеної технологічної складності.Апробація запропонованих наукових підходів на прикладі України виявила, що на міжнародних ринках додатковий попит Китаю і потенційних полюсів глобального зростання з-поміж країн з ринками, що прискорено розвиваються, створює сильні торговельні стимули для пожвавлення економічної активності у вітчизняних експортних галузях з виробництва сировини і продукції її неглибокої переробки, а також слабкі – у галузях з виробництва продукції підвищеної технологічної складності. Тому подальше стрімке інерційне розширення торгівлі України з даними країнами неодмінно посилюватиме ризики уповільнення якісних (структурних) змін у вітчизняній зовнішній торгівлі на користь продукції підвищеної технологічної складності. Отримані емпіричні дані підтверджують припущення західних учених, що глобальна багатополярність створює додаткові загрози для розвитку менших економік, що розвиваються, оскільки стимулює збереження за ними ролі постачальника сировинних ресурсів на світові ринки в майбутньому.

The importance of legal strength for trade unions: Theory and evidence from China

AbstractThis paper studies how legal strength—the effectiveness of a legal system in governing the use of laws—influences trade unions in China. By focusing on the institutional environment in which laws are practiced, I theorize that a strong legal system can empower trade unions through direct legal mobilization and legal consciousness. Empirical analysis with data collected from multiple sources supports this prediction. I find that unionization is more prevalent in strong legal systems than in weak ones. Moreover, Chinese unions improve labor outcomes to a greater extent when one or more dimensions of the legal systems are strong.

Down the Penrose stairs, or how selection for fewer recombination hotspots maintains their existence.

In many species, meiotic recombination events tend to occur in narrow intervals of the genome, known as hotspots. In humans and mice, double strand break (DSB) hotspot locations are determined by the DNA-binding specificity of the zinc finger array of the PRDM9 protein, which is rapidly evolving at residues in contact with DNA. Previous models explained this rapid evolution in terms of the need to restore PRDM9 binding sites lost to gene conversion over time, under the assumption that more PRDM9 binding always leads to more DSBs. This assumption, however, does not align with current evidence. Recent experimental work indicates that PRDM9 binding on both homologs facilitates DSB repair, and that the absence of sufficient symmetric binding disrupts meiosis. We therefore consider an alternative hypothesis: that rapid PRDM9 evolution is driven by the need to restore symmetric binding because of its role in coupling DSB formation and efficient repair. To this end, we model the evolution of PRDM9 from first principles: from its binding dynamics to the population genetic processes that govern the evolution of the zinc finger array and its binding sites. We show that the loss of a small number of strong binding sites leads to the use of a greater number of weaker ones, resulting in a sharp reduction in symmetric binding and favoring new PRDM9 alleles that restore the use of a smaller set of strong binding sites. This decrease, in turn, drives rapid PRDM9 evolutionary turnover. Our results therefore suggest that the advantage of new PRDM9 alleles is in limiting the number of binding sites used effectively, rather than in increasing net PRDM9 binding. By extension, our model suggests that the evolutionary advantage of hotspots may have been to increase the efficiency of DSB repair and/or homolog pairing.

Quality Assurance of Multiple-Choice Questions Test Through Item Analysis

Objective: To analyze the value of in use multiple choice questions of ophthalmology by finding discrimination index, distractor efficiency and difficulty index.Study Design: Cross-sectional study.Place and Duration of Study: The Study was conducted at the Department of Ophthalmology, Karachi Institute of Medical Sciences, Karachi, Pakistan from January 2022 to March 2022. Methods: The study included result of all multiple-choice questions administered during pre-annual examination of the year 2021. There were 45 multiple-choice questions with one correct option and three distractors. Analysis of each item was performed to find difficulty discrimination index and distractor efficiency.Data were entered and analyzed by SPSS software 20.0. Frequency and percentage were calculated for all categorical variables and mean and standard deviation were considered for all continuous variables. Difficulty and discrimination index and distractor efficiency were calculated for multiple-choice questions.Results: Overall, 68.9% had good/acceptable levels of difficulty and were stored, whereas 24.4% were too easy and 6.7% were too complex and confusing. Discrimination analysis demonstrated 27 items to be excellent, 13 good and 5 having poor discrimination. Distractor efficacy was found to be 93.32±19.60. Out of 135 distractors, 129 were functional while non-functioning distractor (NFD) were 6.Conclusion: Item analysis is a valuable assessment tool that identifies better multiple-choice questions to be retained while discarding or reviewing the weak ones. Faculty development programs should be organized for improving item writing skills of faculty
 How to cite this: Farooq MZ, Mashhood S. Quality Assurance of Multiple Choice Questions Test Through Item Analysis. Life and Science. 2023; 4(4): 499-505. doi: http://doi.org/10.37185/LnS.1.1.315

Effects of Gamifying Mathematics Lessons at High School Level

Gamification encompasses the utilization of "playful" or "game-like" elements within non-gaming contexts. It finds diverse applications, primarily within the realms of education/training and the workplace, with the aim of enhancing teamwork and productivity. Nonetheless, the concept of gamification remains a topic of significant debate. Several authors caution that gamification may undermine intrinsic motivation to learn or perform, particularly among younger audiences. Furthermore, the research community increasingly emphasizes potential negative consequences resulting from specific gamification mechanics, such as competition. In this article, we present an approach to gamification that combines competitive elements, albeit at the level of student groups rather than individuals. The idea is to minimize the exposure of underperforming individuals while capitalizing on collaborative group dynamics, wherein stronger students provide support to weaker ones. We conducted a quasi-experiment, comparing motivation and performance between a gamified classroom scenario and a conventional, non-gamified scenario. The results indicate that the proposed gamification approach boosts motivation and performance in contrast to the non-gamified condition. These findings contribute to a deeper comprehension of the effects of gamification and offer a realistic perspective on its beneficial impacts within educational settings.

Harmful strong agents and asymmetric interaction can promote the frequency of cooperation in the snowdrift game

The emergence and mechanism of cooperation in social dilemmas have always been fundamental issues in evolutionary game theory. In this paper, we study the snowdrift game, in which individuals in a stronger position can gain additional benefits in cooperation with weaker individuals due to differences in status. Meanwhile, innocuous-type strong individuals will not harm their partners’ interests, while harmful-type ones will. In a mixed population, the strong individuals in these two asymmetric snowdrift games are more inclined to cooperate, but the weaker ones are more willing to choose defection. The average cooperation frequency is not lower than in symmetric populations. In structured populations, on the other hand, asymmetry promotes the formation of a configuration with a cooperator cluster with a core of strong cooperators, thereby promoting cooperation among individuals. However, only within a small range of parameters the frequency of cooperation will be slightly reduced. Harmful-type strong individuals can be more conducive to promoting cooperation than innocuous-type ones in some cases. The existence of harmful and strong individuals in the snowdrift game further helps to solve the social loafing effect.

ÜNİVERSİTE ÖĞRENİMİ GÖREN VE OKUL TAKIMLARINDA YER ALAN BİREYLERİN ALGILANAN STRES DÜZEYLERİNİN İNCELENMESİ

Abstract
 Aim: This study is to determine how the perceived stress levels of individuals who play individual and team sports in university teams are shaped.
 Method: Scanning method was used in this study. This study has a descriptive and inferential nature. The study was carried out with 159 individuals in the school teams of Kyrgyzstan-Turkey Manas University in the 2021-2022 academic year. The study was shaped on the basis of voluntary participation criteria. In this study, demographic information form prepared by the researcher and Perceived Stress Scale were used to collect data. The obtained data were transferred to computer environment and evaluated with SPSS 25.0 statistical program. By using parametric tests on the data, t-test was used for pairwise group comparisons, ANOVA test was applied for comparing more than two groups, and Post Hoc Turkey multiple comparison test was applied to determine the difference between groups. 
 Findings: In shaping the perceived stress levels of university students; according to the gender variable, women have a higher average than men, according to the age variable, there is a difference in favor of the older ones, according to the type of sport variable in favor of the team sports, according to the competition success variable in favor of the international participants and according to the income level variable, there is a difference in favor of the weak ones but it was concluded that there was no significant difference according to the sports year variable.
 Conclusion: It was concluded that gender is of great importance in the perceived stress levels of individuals studying at university and participating in school teams.

War against the weak ones versus escape from helplessness. Action research

W tekście zostały przedstawione swoiste pejzaże wojny przeciw słabym, w tym wypadku przeciw chorym i niepełnosprawnym oraz działań dehumanizujących w historii i współczesnym świecie. Pojawiły się nurtujące pytania, czy potrafimy i chcemy budować świadomość tego, że gdy tak naprawdę wybucha wojna, właśnie te grupy ludzi będą potrafiły radzić sobie w owej wręcz beznadziejnej sytuacji? Na końcu rysuje się koncepcja badania w działaniu, które jest w trakcie tzw. reanimacji, a dotyczy stworzenia możliwości zdobycia wiedzy, umiejętności i kompetencji do ochrony życia oraz zdrowia osób chorych i z niepełnosprawnościami poprzez opracowanie cyklu szkoleń, warsztatów.

Data Exploratory Analysis and Feature Selection of Low-Speed Wind Tunnel Data for Predicting Force and Moment of Aircraft

This paper discusses exploratory data analysis (EDA) and feature selection of aircraft test results in Indonesia's low-speed wind tunnels (ILST). First, we briefly explain input and output parameters and data processing to make readable and higher accurate data. Then, we used feature selection using embedded and random forest methods to find parameters that most affect the force coefficient of aircraft. The research activities carried out in this study are to review literature from either scientific journals, the internet, or books and interview with an engineer who tests aircraft models at ILST. Then create a program for processing data from test results, such as data extraction, data cleaning, exploratory data analysis, and feature selection with python. After applying the feature selection method, we found that all the methods show similar results and have succeeded in separating the powerful features from the weak ones with a significant score difference. We decide to use the Random Forest method. The three most strongest features in the coefficient of an aircraft model in the ILST test (CL, CD, CM25, CYAW, CROLL and CY) are the following: for CL are ALFA (0.984), T0 (0.008), P0 (0.004), on for CD is are ALFA (0.965), T0 (0.009), RE (0.007), in CM25 are ALFA (0.416), P0 (0.285), T0 (0.168), in CYAW are BETA (0.44), T0 (0.141), ALFA (0.141), in CROLL is BETA (0.79), ALFA (0.091), P0 (0.036), and in CY are BETA (0.842), ALFA (0.114) and T0 (0.014). The results of this paper can be used to help build a model for the coefficient of aircraft design using machine learning based on the data from the ILST test more effectively and efficiently.

Sustainability and Environmental Communities of Practice’s Impact on News Content Diversity

ABSTRACT Communities of practice (CoP) are distinct community groups that share a common interest in which they interact with one another to address problems and reach goals. In the present study, we investigated one niche community—sustainability and environmental communities of practice—to determine whether stronger communities of practices differed from weaker ones. We developed a summative index rating each sampled university student news publication with a single score ranging from 0–3 to represent community of practice strength: (a) universities with a sustainability ranking, (b) student publications with an environmental specialization, (c) universities with an environmental journalism specialization, and (d) no CoP to determine whether university students situated in stronger communities practiced journalism differently. Data from a content analysis of sustainability and environmental news articles showed the strongest sustainability community of practice was related to more topic diversity, but source affiliation diversity levels appear to continue to remain mostly constant across contexts and time. Implications concerning environmental journalism training and university outreach are discussed.

Effect of Training on Chemistry Teachers’ Attitude toward the Comprehensive Assessment System in Secondary Schools of Gakenke District, Rwanda

This study sought to establish the effect of training on chemistry teachers’ attitude toward the comprehensive assessment system in secondary schools of Gkenke District in Rwanda. This study adopted the descriptive research design. Data was collected through questionnaire. Analysis of data was done through descriptive statistics. Furthermore, chi-square test was used to establish the existing relationship between the variables. The study concludes that the majority of teachers were trained on how the comprehensive assessment is implemented. Also most of respondents involved in this study showed a positive attitude towards the CAS and its implementation. Furthermore, the positive attitudes and effective use of CAS in teaching and learning chemistry were found to be associated with training received by teachers. The trained teachers in CBC implementation and its assessment strategies supported the relevance and importance of this assessment strategy compared to those who didn’t receive the training. The study recommends that the districts should organize adequate trainings related to comprehensive assessment strategies to all teachers. There is a need to enhance teachers’ continuous professional development (CPD) at school level to promote good understanding of CAS. There is also a need to enhance the culture of peer collaboration among teachers (learning by experience where strong teachers may help weak ones) in CAS implementation.

The 2020–2021 seismic sequence in the Western Gulf of Corinth: Insights on the triggering mechanisms through high resolution seismological and geodetic data analysis

The 2020–2021 seismic sequence at the Western Gulf of Corinth, Central Greece, has been thoroughly analyzed using seismological and geodetic data processing. We present a high-resolution dataset of over 4000 relocated earthquakes between June 2020 and February 2021, delineating the activated structures. We examine the evolution of various clusters that were triggered during a three-stage sequence which began on December 23, 2020, with an Mw = 4.6 event near Marathias, migrated eastwards, following an Mw = 5.0 event on January 12, 2021 near Trizonia Island, and culminated on February 17 with an Mw = 5.3 offshore event north of Psathopyrgos. Focal mechanisms for the 20 stronger events, determined by moment tensor inversion, and 36 weaker ones, obtained through first motion polarities measurements, revealed dominant normal faulting. The fault plane of the February 17, 2021 major event is modeled through the inversion of geodetic data. Results suggest a very shallow geodetic centroid at 1.5 km depth, consistent with the seismic centroid (3.5 km), but different from the relocated hypocenter (7.5 km). Spatiotemporal analysis reveals seismic migration, following a diffusion law with D values in the range 0.06–0.25 m2s−1, consistent with triggering due to pore-pressure diffusion by fluids intrusion. This enables failure on non-optimally oriented faults, which explains the significant proportion of the observed strike-slip and oblique-normal faulting. Coulomb stress transfer due to the major events shows only weak stress-loading on the fault of the January 12, 2021 earthquake and a higher level of positive stress transfer to the south-dipping than to the north-dipping nodal plane of the 17 February event. The latter could have facilitated the nucleation of the rupture at 7.5 km and its further propagation to shallower depths along a south-dipping plane, where the bulk of its seismic and geodetic moment was released.

Addressing the diversity of visions of ecologization in research and in support to agroecological transitions

ABSTRACT Agroecology is increasingly recognized as a relevant framework for envisioning the transition of agriculture and food systems, but is often tackled in a dualistic perspective opposing strong or radical visions of agroecology to weak or incremental ones. This article is based on a collective, reflexive and comparative analysis of eight research projects dealing with agroecological transitions at the scale of farming systems and agrifood systems. Each project brought together a diversity of actors having different visions of ecologization. The aim of this article is to describe how and with what benefits this diversity of visions was addressed in the projects. We show that taking into account the diversity of visions is necessary for understanding agroecological transitions, and that beyond this, sharing this diversity among the concerned actors is necessary for accompanying them in an inclusive way and, under certain conditions, enrich transition pathways. We also show the need to adopt analytical approaches to characterize the visions along with participatory action-research approaches allowing to share them and support transitions. Finally, the collective and reflexive process we carried out for this article also enabled the researchers to situate their projects and themselves with regard to their role in the agro-ecological transitions.

Facial cues to physical strength are not always associated with facial masculinity: Comparative study of Europeans and Southern Siberians.

The aim of our study was to compare morphometric patterns of facial sexual dimorphism with strength-face relationship in members of two distinct populations of European and Central Asian origin: Russians and Tuvans. Handgrip strength (HGS) measures and facial photographs were collected from Russian (n = 233) and Tuvan (n = 187) men and women. We digitized 70 landmarks and semilandmarks on full-face and 54 landmarks and semilandmarks on profile photos. This was done to capture variation in facial morphology. After that, we performed the shape regressions of landmarks' coordinates upon sex and HGS. Results were visualized in forms of thin-plate deformation grids and geometric morphometric morphs. In both populations, HGS was associated significantly with male facial shape only. In Russian men, strength-related changes of facial shape were almost completely in direction of increase in male-typicality. This was especially evident for the relative lower facial width, which was higher in men compared to women, as well as in stronger men compared to weaker ones. On the contrary, in Tuvans the lower face was relatively narrower in men than in women. However, the facial shape of strong Tuvan men was also associated with relatively wider lower face. Our results indicate that the effect of strength on facial shape is relatively independent of facial sexual dimorphism. Our findings clearly demonstrate that physical strength is associated with the shape of the lower part of male faces even in populations with a mismatched direction of lower face sexual dimorphism.

Spatio-temporal variation of annual precipitation in China and its response to ENSO

Abstract The results showed that the precipitation in the study area was mainly in a downward trend before the mid-1930s, and then turned upward. In the 1950s, the precipitation generally showed a distribution of rising in the west and falling in the east, and this trend continued until the early 21st century. By 2007, except for the central part of the Continental Basin, the overall trend was mainly upward. In this study, 65 El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events were identified, including 24 El Niño events and 41 La Niña events. The precipitation was generally less when ENSO occurred. However, there were differences in the type and intensity of the event. For example, El Niño had a greater impact on precipitation than La Niña did, and extremely strong or strong El Niño/La Niña events had a more significant impact than moderate, weak, or extremely weak ones. The correlation between precipitation and El Niño or La Niña events had some similarities and differences. For example, precipitation was mainly negatively correlated with El Niño and La Niña at the same time, and both correlations were proportional to intensity, but the correlation between precipitation and El Niño was significantly stronger than that of La Niña.

Salt fingering staircases and the three-component Phillips effect

Understanding the dynamics of staircases in salt fingering convection presents a long-standing theoretical challenge to fluid dynamicists. Although there has been significant progress, particularly through numerical simulations, there are a number of conflicting theoretical explanations as to the driving mechanism underlying staircase formation. The Phillips effect proposes that layering in stirred stratified flow is due to an antidiffusive process, and it has been suggested that this mechanism may also be responsible for salt fingering staircases. However, the details of this process, as well as mathematical models to predict the evolution and merger dynamics of staircases, have yet to be established. We generalise the theory of the Phillips effect to a three-component system (e.g. temperature, salinity, energy) and demonstrate a regularised nonlinear model of layering based on mixing length parametrisations. The model predicts both the inception of layering and its long-term evolution through mergers, while generalising, and remaining consistent with, previous results for double-diffusive layering based on flux ratios. Our model of salt fingering is formulated using spatial averaging processes, and closed by a mixing length parametrised in terms of the kinetic energy and the ratio of the temperature and salt gradients. The model predicts a layering instability for a bounded range of parameter values in the salt fingering regime. Nonlinear solutions show that an initially unstable linear buoyancy gradient develops into layers, which proceed to merge through a process of stronger interfaces growing at the expense of weaker ones. Our results indicate that these mergers are responsible for the characteristic increase of buoyancy flux through thermohaline staircases.

Political violence and financial markets in Tsarist Russia

There is little research studying the effects of political violence on financial markets over decades, especially in an atmosphere where the violence manifested itself in heterogeneous and geographically widespread ways. This article examines the authoritarian edifice of Tsarist Russia in the nineteenth century to examine the way in which capital markets perceived political instability in a country which had paradoxically strong financial institutions but weak political ones. Using a novel database on political violence in Russia in the nineteenth century matched to monthly financial data from Russian equity markets, this article provides strong evidence that Russia's financial markets were negatively affected in the long run by political violence. Consistent with modern views of financial information, the effects of political violence were quickly incorporated into asset prices, but the specific magnitude of such violence was different depending on where the violence occurred and in what manner. Overall, it appeared that political violence was perceived very negatively by investors in Russian equity markets.