Wax deposition is a major challenge in oil and gas production, particularly in offshore fields like the Bohai Sea. This study investigates the deposition mechanisms of two oils (B oil with high wax content and J oil with high resin and asphaltene content) under varying temperatures, production rates, and time using cold deposition experiments. For B oil, deposition thickness increases by 126% (from 5.72 to 12.94 mm at 20 m³/d) as oil-wall temperature reduces from 42–40 °C to 27–25 °C, following classical wax aging rules. High-temperature gas chromatography (HTGC) shows that heavy components (C40–C60) dominate deposits, with 42% higher content than crude oil. In contrast, J oil exhibits atypical behavior with initial deposition thickness reaching 8.2 mm due to rapid gelation. Despite wall temperatures exceeding the wax appearance temperature (WAT), deposits form via colloidal aggregation, with minimal thickness increase (<5% over 8 hr). HTGC analysis shows weaker aging effects (C40–C60 content only 8% higher than crude oil), highlighting the dominance of viscosity-driven gelation over wax crystallization. This work enhances the understanding of wax deposition mechanisms in wellbore production and suggests that effective wax removal for waxy crude oils with high resin and asphaltene content requires combining pour-point depressants and viscosity-reducing agents.

Mutants with a bright green appearance due to wax synthesis or deposition defects have been reported in various plants such as Arabidopsis thaliana, corn, and rice, but they are relatively rare in broccoli (a brassicaceae crop). Here, we describe SY03, a natural mutant of broccoli with a glossy green phenotype owing to epidermal wax deficiency. Genetic analysis indicated that the leaf luster trait of SY03 was controlled by a single recessive gene. By using the F2 generation and combining bulked segregant analysis and molecular marker techniques, the candidate gene BoFAR3a, homologous to the Arabidopsis FAR gene, was identified within a 96.678 kb interval of chromosome C01. The A→G point mutation in exon 1 of the BoFAR3a coding sequence substitutes the canonical ATG start codon with GTG, which is predicted to abrogate or severely reduce translation initiation. RT-qPCR indicated that the expression levels of BoFAR3a were significantly decreased in the leaves of the glossy green phenotype mutant. Heterologous expression of BoFAR3a in A. thaliana restored the phenotype of A. thaliana mutant FAR3. The discovery of BoFAR3a is of great significance for breeding lustrous and commercially appealing broccoli varieties. This study systematically analyzed the molecular basis of the lustrous green phenotype in broccoli, providing new insights into the epidermal waxy regulatory network of cruciferous crops. In the future, the wax synthesis pathway can be precisely improved through gene editing technology, achieving a coordinated enhancement of the appearance quality and stress resistance of broccoli.

Water scarcity threatens global rice production, necessitating identification of genotypes with improved water use efficiency (WUE) whilst maintaining productivity. Previous drought studies typically imposed severe stress conditions that compromised yield and quality, creating a knowledge gap regarding rice responses to moderate water limitation during vegetative growth. Here we show that 18 temperate japonica and 2 indica rice genotypes employ two distinct water conservation strategies under controlled limited water conditions (60-65% field capacity): inherent physiological tolerance versus adaptive phenotypic plasticity. We evaluated rice varieties under ponded and limited water treatments, integrating stomatal traits, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, leaf carbon isotope composition (δ13C), and surface properties quantified via scanning electron microscopy and ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. Inherently tolerant genotypes maintained stable photosynthetic performance through constitutively lower stomatal conductance and enhanced cuticular wax deposition. Conversely, adaptive genotypes exhibited pronounced physiological plasticity under water limitation. Notably, LW treatment induced significant enlargement of leaf surface papillae positioned over stomatal complexes, suggesting a potential structural mechanism contributing to reduced transpirational water loss. This represents a previously under-recognised adaptation in smooth-leaf Australian germplasm lacking protective trichomes. Mixed-effects modelling confirmed that photochemical traits and water-use traits responded most strongly to treatment, while reproductive and yield-related measurements indicated no major penalty under limited water. Carbon isotope discrimination (δ13C) validated superior intrinsic WUE in top-performing varieties. These complementary strategies provide multiple pathways for breeding water-efficient rice adapted to Australian temperate production systems under moderate water limitation without substantial yield loss.

L-phenylalanine induces cutin and wax biosynthesis in muskmelon fruit epidermis via fatty acid and triterpenoid pathways.

Gas lift operation involves injecting compressed gas into a low-producing or non-producing well to maximize oil production. The gas lift method is an artificial lift technique that brings reservoir fluid to the surface by utilizing the energy of the compressed gas injected into the well. However, the gas lift artificial lift process has certain drawbacks, such as well deterioration, inaccurate production measurements, gas compressor instability, and excessive gas injection. Furthermore, due to the increasing percentage of difficult-to-extract reserves in the overall structure, the formation of paraffin deposits remains a critical problem in oil production. Studies show that the precipitation of dissolved paraffin in oil and the formation of deposits begin when the bottom-hole temperature (BHT) drops below the Paraffin Appearance Temperature (PAT). In gas lift wells, this is typically observed on the inner surface of the tubing (NKB or production tubing). The formation of wax (paraffin) deposits negatively affects the performance of individual production wells and the development of the field as a whole, leading to reduced productivity and the necessity of taking measures for paraffin removal, consequently increasing the well's downtime and operational costs. It is essential to implement regular wax removal measures in wells to ensure stable production of high-paraffin crude oil. Within the framework of the study's methodology, the physical basis of the gas lift process is analyzed using mathematical models. Furthermore, the main factors influencing the formation of paraffin deposits—specifically the temperature regime, pressure change, and composition of the circulating oil, associated petroleum gas (APG), and the oil-gas mixture in the gas lift tubing—are thoroughly determined. The practical effectiveness of the proposed operational solutions for preventing paraffin deposits is demonstrated based on the analysis of well operating characteristics and the thermodynamic state. A key finding is the presentation of specific recommendations for determining the optimal composition of the associated petroleum gas injected into the gas lift process to prevent paraffin formation. This optimal composition allows the temperature inside the tubing to be maintained above the PAT. The research results can be applied to enhance the efficiency of gas lift wells operating with high-paraffin crude oils, reduce operating expenses, and extend the working life of the wells. Keywords: gas lift, paraffin deposits, artificial lift methods, oil production, tubing (or production tubing), production optimization

Wax deposition during the throttling of waxy natural gas poses a critical challenge to the efficiency and safety of high-pressure transmission systems. This study develops a three-dimensional dynamic mesh deposition model, integrating nucleation, particle transport, and detachment mechanisms, to investigate the formation and evolution of wax deposits in throttle valves. Statistical analysis of nucleated particle sizes indicates that particle diameters predominantly range from 3 to 22 nm, with higher inlet pressures increasing the proportion of larger particles, while aperture ratio has a minor effect on size distribution but significantly affects the total number of precipitated particles. Deposition simulations reveal that wall deposition rates increase rapidly during the initial stage and gradually stabilize, with final rates ranging from 10% to 30%. The distribution and thickness of deposits are strongly influenced by the turbulent kinetic energy structure, with primary accumulation occurring near the throttle exit and downstream regions. Particle flow-following behavior and local flow disturbances collectively determine the spatial distribution and morphology of the deposit. These findings provide new insights into the coupled effects of pressure, aperture geometry, and turbulence on wax deposition and offer theoretical guidance for predicting and mitigating wax-related operational risks in high-pressure natural gas systems.

Genome-wide identification of fatty acyl-CoA reductase gene family in cucumber and functional analysis of CsFAR3-like in cuticle wax formation and drought tolerance.

Advances in viticultural management techniques have become increasingly important for mitigating the effects of challenging climatic conditions. The double-pruning technique is already widely used in Brazilian vineyards, enabling a shift of the harvest season from summer to winter. This shift allows key phenological stages, such as flowering, ripening, and harvest, to occur under milder temperatures and reduced precipitation. In contrast, the use of plastic coverings allows growers to maintain the conventional grapevine cycle while providing a physical barrier that protects the plants. Although both techniques are known and applied in some regions of the country, little information is available on their combined effects, particularly regarding plant physiology. Considering this gap, the present study evaluated the combined effects of double pruning and plastic coverings on the internal and external morphology and physiology of cv. Sauvignon blanc grapevines. The plastic covering prevented the direct incidence of rainwater on leaves and reduced the wash-off of applied fungicides. This led to lower disease incidence and fewer pesticide applications. Additionally, plastic covering reduced the photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) to levels close to the light saturation point of the grapevine, while also altering the light spectrum by attenuating UV-B radiation (280–315 nm). Together, these factors enhanced key physiological processes, including photosynthesis, transpiration, stomatal conductance, and chlorophyll accumulation. Leaf area is high in covered plants, and anatomical analyses revealed plastic responses in uncovered vines to excess light and UV-B exposure, such as thicker epidermal and palisade tissues and the deposition of epicuticular wax around stomata. However, these structural adjustments did not result in greater CO2 assimilation. Overall, this study demonstrates that the combination of simple management practices, as plastic covering, can improve and facilitate grapevine cultivation under challenging weather conditions, while also providing valuable insights into the physiological responses of the plant.

Introduction Drought stress is a critical limitation to robusta coffee (Coffea canephora) cultivation, particularly under prolonged dry seasons and increasing climate variability. Grafting robusta onto arabica (Coffea arabica) rootstocks is a promising strategy to enhance physiological performance under water-limited conditions. Methods A three-year nursery study (2020–2023) was conducted at the Central Coffee Research Institute, Karnataka, India, to evaluate the drought response of two robusta scions (S.274 and C×R) grafted onto four tetraploid arabica rootstocks (Sln.6, Sln.9, S.4595 and Sln.5B). The experiment followed a randomized block design with three replications. Physiological and biochemical traits were assessed at before stress, at incipient wilting (9.4% soil moisture) (at stress) and 15 days after rewatering (after alleviation of stress). Results The combination S.4595/C×R exhibited the lowest reduction in net photosynthesis (−7.7%) under stress and highest post-stress recovery. Sln.6/C×R and Sln.9/S.274 also performed well, while Sln.5B/C×R maintained stable stomatal conductance and full recovery. S.4595/C×R and Sln.5B/C×R showed minimal decline in intercellular CO ₂ , high relative water content (79.63%), and epicuticular wax deposition (29.90 µg/cm ² ), indicating enhanced water retention. These grafts also retained higher chlorophyll a and b content and demonstrated superior intrinsic water use efficiency. Discussion Arabica-rooted grafts, particularly S.4595/C×R, Sln.5B/C×R and Sln.6/C×R, significantly enhanced physiological tolerance to drought. These combinations offer promising options for developing climate-resilient coffee systems through rootstock-scion interactions, especially under increasing moisture stress scenarios.

Considered a primary energy source, crude oil is essential for the production of industrial inputs. With the increase in investments in deepwater production systems, technological challenges emerge, especially in the exploitation of the Brazilian presalt, where the formation of hydrates and wax deposits can pose flow assurance risks. In addition to conditions that favor deposit formation, such as low seabed temperature, these fields also present a high gas/oil ratio and elevated pressuresfactors that can alter the kinetics and thermodynamics of the phenomenon. This study aims to experimentally characterize the influence of three different gases (CO2, Natural Gas, N2, and N2 + n-hexane) at different pressuresup to 20.0 MPa gauge (MPag) on the first and second crystallization events of a dead crude oil sample from the Brazilian presalt. The experiments were conducted using HPμDSC high-pressure cells, with pressure increased by the slow and gradual injection of each gas under study. It was found that N2 injection increases the WAT, while Natural Gas injection, in contrast, reduces the WAT. In the case of CO2 injection, pressure intervals were observed in which WAT increases, and others in which it remains constant; this behavior was also observed for the crystallization temperature of the second event.

This study investigated the leaf surface micromorphology of 12 species of the genus Sansevieria using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The research focused on identifying micromorphological traits associated with plant stress tolerance, including epidermal cell shape, cuticle thickness, stomatal distribution and density, and cuticular characteristics with epicuticular wax deposits. In most of the studied Sansevieria species, the leaves are amphistomatic, whereas hypostomatic leaves are observed in S. cylindrica, S. canaliculata, and S. suffruticosa. In all studied taxa, the epidermis consists of a single layer of cells and lacks trichomes.The examined Sansevieria species are characterized by a well-developed cuticular layer and the presence of wax deposits that perform protective and water-conserving functions. The thickness of the cuticle and its ornamentation vary both among species and between leaf surfaces within the same species. The abaxial leaf surface generally exhibits a more developed cuticle than the adaxial surface, a feature particularly pronounced in S. cylindrica, S. canaliculata, S. kirkii, S. roxburghiana, S. gracilis, S. suffruticosa, and S. intermedia. All investigated species possess anomocytic stomata. Stomatal density on the abaxial leaf surface ranged from 9 to 27 mm2 among the studied species. These interspecific variations reflect distinct strategies for optimizing water balance under arid conditions.At the level of leaf micromorphology, amphistomaty, the spatial organization of epidermal cells, the presence of a cuticular layer with epicuticular wax deposits of various configurations, differences in stomatal sunkenness and density, and the occurrence of underdeveloped stomata can be considered markers of stress tolerance in this genus. The identified micromorphological markers provide insight into the adaptive xeromorphic traits of Sansevieria and have potential applications in applied research, including biotechnological projects and phytoremediation, including green infrastructure development.

ABSTRACT Wax deposition constitutes a severe flow assurance challenge in the petroleum industry. Hydrophilic coatings show great potential for wax inhibition based on the water film theory. Herein, we report a novel silica-modified fly ash/aluminum dihydrogen phosphate (FA@SiO2/ADP) hydrophilic coating with hybrid micro/nano-architectures. The introduced hierarchical structures induce strong capillary action toward water, while abundant surface hydroxyl groups and phosphate networks facilitate the formation of a stable and continuous water film via hydrogen bonding and covalent P–O–Si cross-linking. This results in outstanding underwater oleophobicity and wax inhibition efficiency of 51.2%. Furthermore, the coating exhibits significantly enhanced interfacial strength and mechanical robustness due to the inorganic ADP binder and the formation of network structure. This work not only provides a practical and cost-effective antiwax coating with promising industrial applicability but also offers deeper mechanistic insights into the design of durable hydrophilic surfaces for harsh operational environments.

The identification of Daphne taxa is difficult because of the lack of available morphological characteristics. Here, we aimed to describe leaf and wood micromorpho‐anatomical characteristics of native Turkish Daphne taxa ( D. glomerata , D. gnidioides , D. mezereum , D. mucronata , D. oleoides subsp. kurdica , D. pontica and D. sericea ) from three phytogeographical regions (Europeo‐Siberian, Irano‐Turanian and Mediterranean) from Türkiye to contribute to the systematic position of taxa. Totally, 41 leaf and wood characters were investigated. Most of the features were characterised in detail for the first time in these taxa, and statistical analyses were used to evaluate the diagnostic characters. SEM analysis was carried out to determine the surface structures of leaves and tracheal elements of wood. We encountered the following distinct anatomical differences: 1) differences in wax depositions in leaves, 2) in pubescens details, 3) in cell wall patterns, 4) in mesophyll types, 5) in midrib structures, 6) in stomatal number and stomatal length in hypostomatic leaves with anomocytic stomata and 7) in vessel arragement in growth rings, with different ray frequency and cellular ray composition, and the presence of tori in intervessel pits in wood. An identification key based on these micromorpho‐anatomical characters is presented, some ecological interpretations are made, and the study's results are compared to existing data in the literature. Our results demonstrate that the micromorpho‐anatomical data across taxa are partly congruent with the classification in the Turkish Flora, but new sectional arrangements may be recommended for the systematic positions of taxa based on their phytogeographical origins.

Wax deposition characteristics under oil-water two-phase stratified flow in pipeline

Wax deposition in crude oil pipelines, caused by temperatures dropping below the wax appearance temperature (WAT), leads to paraffin build-up and blockage. While chemical inhibitors can prevent this, they are costly and harmful to the environment. This study explored biodegradable saponins extracted from fenugreek seeds as a sustainable alternative to inhibit wax deposition, improve the rheological behavior, and compare it with commercial saponins. Saponin was extracted using chemical methods, producing white crystals in samples A, B, and C at different rotational speeds (150, 200, and 250 rpm), while commercial saponin was named Sample D. Characterization using FTIR, GC-MS, and TGA confirmed the presence of saponin, with Sample C showing the closest match to the commercial version. Cold finger analysis evaluated the wax deposition reduction, with Sample C achieving the highest paraffin inhibition efficiency (PIE) of 67.13% at 20°C and 350 rpm, 51.33% at 1 h, and 90.76% at 800 ppm. Sample C emerged as the most effective inhibitor, offering a promising and biodegradable alternative to conventional wax inhibitors used in pipelines. Future research should focus on scaling up the extraction process and testing it under various pipeline conditions.

The transportation of waxy crude oils is often challenged by high pour points and wax deposition, which significantly increase pipeline viscosity, energy consumption, and operational costs. Pour point depressants (PPDs) have emerged as effective chemical additives to modify wax crystallization behavior, reduce pour point, and improve crude oil flowability. In this study, the role of PPDs in enhancing pipeline transportation of waxy crude oil is discussed with emphasis on their mechanisms of action, such as adsorption on wax crystal surfaces, inhibition of crystal growth, and modification of crystal morphology. Various classes of PPDs, including ethylene–vinyl acetate copolymers, polymethacrylates, and comb-like copolymers, are evaluated for their efficiency in lowering pour point and mitigating wax deposition. Laboratory assessments and field applications demonstrate that optimized PPD formulations can reduce pour points by more than 10-20°C, ensuring uninterrupted transportation under sub-ambient conditions. This literature review summarizes the importance of molecular structure, crude oil composition, and operating parameters in determining PPD performance, providing insights for the design of next-generation flow assurance additives.

From glossy to glaucous: How TaMYB96-2D controls wax deposition and drought resilience.

As a vital appearance quality trait of broccoli, curd-surface wax powder not only affects its commercial value but also plays a key role in plant resistance to abiotic stresses. However, its formation mechanism remains unclear. Using low-wax variety CK (‘QH18’) and high-wax variety T1 (‘QHMS4’) as materials, this study systematically elucidated the molecular mechanism of wax powder formation via physiological indexes, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), targeted metabolomics, and transcriptomics. Determination of fatty acid (FA) content in broccoli flower bud tissue showed a close association between FA content and wax deposition. SEM observation revealed that T1 had significantly denser wax crystals, mainly granular, than CK. Targeted metabolomics identified 25 fatty acids in the two varieties. And the linolenic and palmitic acids, with high content and significant differences, may be key metabolites regulating wax synthesis. Integrated transcriptomics and metabolomics indicated that BolfabG, BolLACS, BolKCS1, BolKCS2 and BolMAH1 genes are involved in wax biosynthesis. Moreover, AP2/ERF-ERF transcription factor (TF)-encoding genes (BolERF018, BolERF1F.1, BolERF1F.2 and BolERF1C) played the primary role in regulating wax biosynthesis, followed by NAC (BolNAC62.1), MYB (BolMYB44), and MADS-MIKC(BolPISTILLATA). These TFs may regulate BolfabG, BolLACS, BolKCS1, BolACOX2 and BolACAA1 to affect linolenic and palmitic acid balance, altering wax precursor synthesis and accumulation, and finally leading to differences in wax morphology and content. This study reveals a “Transcription Factors–Differentially Expressed Genes–Differentially Accumulated Metabolites–Fatty Acids” (TFs-DEGs-DAMs-FA) network, providing a basis for understanding broccoli wax formation.

Head rice yield (HRY) is a crucial quality trait that determines the final commodity yield and commercial value of rice. Conversely, chalkiness represents an undesirable appearance characteristic, significantly impairing rice marketability. Thus, developing rice germplasms with superior HRY and appearance traits is highly desirable for rice production and marketing. However, the master modules and regulatory networks underlying HRY and chalkiness remain largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that the rice transcription factor OsMYB99 acts as a master regulator conferring high HRY and low chalkiness. Functional loss of OsMYB99 impairs cuticular wax biosynthesis and deposition in caryopses and causes accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in endosperms, consequently decreasing HRY and increasing chalkiness. Mechanistically, OsMYB99 functions as a transcription activator; it binds promoters and positively regulates the expression of wax biosynthesis gene OsGL1-4 and ROS scavenger OsMT2b. OsGL1-4 promotes cuticular wax biosynthesis and deposition in caryopses, while OsMT2b eliminates excess ROS in endosperms. Together, these actions lead to HRY enhancement and chalkiness reduction. Our study uncovers the master regulator OsMYB99 and its molecular network modulating HRY and chalkiness in rice, offering a strategy to improve these traits through modifying cuticular wax deposition and ROS production.

Pottery is exposed to many damage factors, including effects of salts, soot, and fats as a result of the soil it is buried in. And because of storing the wax in pottery vessels, or using it to close the pottery vessel. Pottery vessels are also used to preserve food products, such as milk, oils, and other products that appear on the texture of ancient pottery. Therefore, pottery cleaning is one of the first steps in the preservation process, and is the most important and accurate conservation work. Due to the inaccuracy of traditional cleaning, the study aims to evaluate and compare the cleaning with nanomaterial's. Agarose poultices loaded with SDS or Vulpex cleaning agent were prepared in the presence of Nano titanium dioxide. Different analytical techniques, such as the transmission electron microscope (TEM), USB digital optical microscope, scanning electron microscope (SEM-EDX), and measurement of color change have been used to evaluate the cleaning materials and the cleaning process. The results of the microscopic investigation used in the evaluation process revealed that using TiO2 SDS NPS poultice and TiO2 Vulpex NPS poultice perfectly removed salt, soot, dust, and wax deposits from the pottery samples' surface. The results of elemental analysis by (SEM-EDX) showed the salts and soot percentage of the treated samples with TiO2 SDS NPS poultice and TiO2 Vulpex NPS poultice respectively. The measurement of color change revealed that the treated samples with TiO2 SDS NPS poultice gave unnoticeable alteration to the human eye.