Indoor water parks, with over 1100 facilities in the United States, are popular recreational venues with an estimated 1.5 million visitors per year in North America. While generally well tolerated, they can be associated with significant respiratory and nonrespiratory health risks. This review focuses exclusively on the infectious and noninfectious respiratory health issues associated with indoor water park usage and is timely due to increasing popularity, evolving water-treatment practices, and the unique vulnerability of specific populations. This review synthesizes peer-reviewed studies and institutional data from 2014 to 2024, detailing exposure mechanisms, health effects, mitigation strategies, and impacts on vulnerable populations such as children, asthmatic individuals, cystic fibrosis patients, immunocompromised individuals, and workers. Topics covered include disinfection by-products (DBPs), chloramine inhalation effects, asthma risks, hypersensitivity pneumonitis from nontuberculous mycobacteria, and occupational exposures. Emerging technologies in air and water quality management, alongside recent policy and facility-design developments, are also examined. While indoor water parks remain a valued recreational resource, they pose significant and often under-recognized respiratory risks. Through better facility ventilation, hygiene education, disinfection innovation, and regulatory reform, these risks can be mitigated to protect both patrons and staff, particularly in vulnerable subpopulations.

Physicochemical and bacterial contamination pose a significant threat to drinking water quality in Bangladesh, requiring comprehensive analysis. This study investigates the physicochemical and metagenomic quality of drinking water from one of four water treatment plants (WTPs) in Kushtia Municipality, Bangladesh. Water samples (n = 3) from untreated, treated, and supplied water were collected between March 1 and 7, 2025. Thirteen physicochemical parameters were analyzed using traditional methods, while bacterial load was assessed using Plate Count Agar. Microbial diversity was analyzed through metagenomic sequencing of DNA extracted using the DNeasy PowerWater Kit, targeting the 16S rRNA gene (V3-V4 region) on the Illumina MiSeq platform. Alpha and beta diversity were evaluated with Chao1, Shannon, and Simpson indices, and taxonomic and pathway analysis were performed on the Kaiju and Nephele platforms. Water quality was assessed using treatment efficiency metrics, the Water Quality Index (WQI), and the Nemerow Pollution Index (NPI). Results reveal that only three of the physicochemical parameters meet the water quality standards of Bangladesh. The WTP's cumulative efficiency metric was found to be 30.76%. The WQI indicated that all water samples were unfit for drinking. The NPI showed that eight out of thirteen physicochemical parameters significantly contribute to poor water quality. Microbial evaluations revealed high bacterial levels in untreated and supplied water samples. Alpha diversity analysis, using Shannon and Simpson indices, showed no significant differences in bacterial abundance across water types. Beta diversity analysis indicated minimal dissimilarity. Functional profiling suggested the presence of antibiotic resistance-associated pathways, with predicted beta-lactam resistance representing 24.1% in treated water and 25.0% in supplied water. The dominant phyla include Proteobacteria (38% in untreated, 39% in treated, and 42% in supplied). About 75%, 83%, and 67% of the identified bacterial species were found to be pathogenic, antibiotic-resistant, and biofilm-forming, respectively, while 58% were classified as opportunistic pathogens. These results underscore the need for improved water treatment practices and more robust monitoring systems to ensure the population can access safe drinking water.

ABSTRACT Peroxymonocarbonate (PMC), a green in situ oxidant formed from the reaction between hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and bicarbonate (HCO3⁻), has demonstrated promising potential for the degradation of organic pollutants, although its underlying mechanisms remain not fully elucidated. In this study, the degradation efficiency and mechanistic pathways of PMC toward tetracycline (TC) were systematically investigated. Compared to H2O2 alone, PMC exhibited significantly enhanced TC degradation, with a first-order rate constant (k) of 0.0181 min⁻¹, approximately 10 times higher than that of H2O2 alone. Key factors affecting the degradation efficiency, such as anions, cations, pH, humic acid, and different water matrices, were thoroughly examined. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) analysis confirmed the generation of free radicals, while non-radical oxidation pathways were also suggested. Among the reactive oxygen species, ·OH and CO3·⁻ are the primary species driving TC degradation, while ¹O2 and ·O2⁻ act as secondary contributors. Three potential degradation pathways were proposed based on liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis and density functional theory (DFT) calculations, and the corresponding toxicity predicted using ecological structure-activity relationship (ECOSAR) model. This study provides new insights into the application of environmentally benign oxidants for antibiotic removal and highlights the potential of PMC in water treatment practices.

Individuals with limited mobility, including people with disabilities (PWD) and older persons (OP), often encounter obstacles in accessing water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services because facilities do not meet their needs. Kenya’s cash transfer program seeks to enhance dignity, promote inclusion, and provide social protection for vulnerable households of OP (70+), PWD, and orphaned and vulnerable children (OVC). A combination of cash transfers with other supportive services, often referred to as "Cash plus," has been shown to improve non-monetary aspects of human development among targeted households. Conducted in Makueni County, Kenya, this quasi-experimental study assessed households’ ability to make WASH facilities accessible (usable) for OP and PWD, investigated how inclusive WASH interventions affected access for OP and PWD, and analyzed how the intervention influenced expenditure priorities of households under the cash transfer program. Quantitative data was collected using individual questionnaires, with a total of 223 respondents. The study found a significant difference between the intervention and control arms in improved water storage practices (p0.00); improved household water treatment practices (p<0.001); household toilet modifications (p=0.0047); handwashing station modifications (P <0.001); and bathing facility modifications (p = 0.002) to improve access (usability). Further, the intervention group reported 5-times higher odds of toilet modification (aOR=5.02, 95% CI: 2.67-9.76, p<0.001); 4 times higher odds of handwashing facility modifications (aOR=4.12, 95% CI: 2.19-8.03, p<0.001) 4.6 times higher odds of bathing facility modifications (aOR=4.61, 95% CI: 2.319.57, p<0.001) and 3 times higher odds of prioritizing WASH among the top 3 expenditure priorities (aOR=3.18, 95% CI: 1.62-6.51, p=0.001). The results indicate that implementing inclusive WASH interventions can significantly improve households' capacity to practice safe WASH behaviors, support the adaptation of existing WASH facilities through basic modifications, and promote greater prioritization of household investment in WASH-related services and resources.

Microplastics represent a pressing global environmental concern due to their persistence, widespread occurrence, and adverse impacts on aquatic ecosystems and human health. Effective removal of these contaminants from water is essential to safeguard biodiversity and ensure water quality. This work focuses on the pivotal role of membrane-based filtration technologies, including microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, membrane bioreactors, and dynamic membranes, in capturing and eliminating microplastics. The performance of these systems depends on key membrane characteristics such as pore size, material composition, hydrophilicity, mechanical strength, and module design, which govern retention efficiency, fouling resistance, and operational stability. Membrane filtration offers a highly effective, scalable, and sustainable approach to microplastic removal, outperforming conventional treatment methods by selectively targeting a wide range of particle sizes and morphologies. By highlighting the critical contribution of membranes and filtration processes, this study underscores their potential in mitigating microplastic pollution and advancing sustainable water treatment practices.

ABSTRACT Safe drinking water is crucial for human health. However, global challenges such as limited access to WASH (Water Sanitation, and Hygiene) services, water scarcity, and inequities in clean water distribution contribute to poor hygiene and the spread of waterborne diseases, such as diarrhea, dysentery, and cholera. These challenges are particularly prevalent in rural areas of developing countries. This cross-sectional study assessed the microbiological contamination and associated risk factors in drinking water from 270 rural households. The findings were compared to Rwanda's national drinking water quality standards. Overall, 56.7% of water samples met the national pH standards. However, only 21.9% met the microbiological safety criteria for drinking water. Factors significantly associated with the quality of stored drinking water included age of the household head (p = 0.041), education level (p = 0.047), water source (p = 0.018), and water treatment practices (p = 0.023). Logistic regression indicated that older adults were 3.38 times more likely to use unsafe drinking water (95% CI: 1.24–9.24; p = 0.018). These findings highlight the need for regular monitoring of household drinking water quality and the implementation of WASH interventions, such as the treatment of drinking water, to ensure access to safe drinking water.

Currently, industrial wastewater is characterized by a more complex composition and increased toxicity. Industrial wastewater treatment takes place mainly in biological treatment plants, the distinctive feature of which is the implementation of the process of extended aeration of wastewater. To ensure the required quality of biotreated water, it is prerequisite to know the status of activated sludge during the biological treatment process. Therefore, the purpose of the work was to assess the state of activated sludge in the process of biological treatment of industrial wastewater in a comparative aspect and to develop a new, more promising indicator for assessing the activated sludge status. The article assessed the status of two activated sludges: formed on wastewater from organic synthesis plants and on wastewater from petrochemical enterprises. A similar trend has been established for changes in the activated sludge status while biological treatment, assessed on a five-point scale and the Shannon hydrobiological index. The exception is the modified Cube index, for which the quantitative discrepancy of its changes compared to the above is shown. A certain subjectivity of the five-point rating scale, associated with the microbiologist qualification, and insufficient information content of hydrobiological indices which take into account only the presence of indicator organisms of activated sludge were revealed. For use in water treatment practice, a new quantitative indicator has been proposed. It is based on data from direct analytical measurements. It is equal to the ratio of the supernatant liquid turbidity to the generic Shannon index (combined indicator) value. The complete correspondence of the change in the activated sludge status on a five-point rating scale and a combined indicator characterizing the stress level of activated sludge during the biotreatment process is shown. Greater sensitivity of the combined indicator was noted, especially with a significant decrease in the assessment of the activated sludge status. A predictive model has been obtained that describes the change in the status of activated sludge formed from wastewater of organic synthesis plant during the water treatment and its recovery potential (coefficient of determination 97.06%).

Borehole water has remained a major source of domestic water in most urban and semi-urban settlements, and have been frequently associated with cases of Salmonella contamination. This study investigated the prevalence, antibiotic resistance profiles, and molecular features of Salmonella species recovered from borehole water sources in selected suburban communities of Rivers State, Nigeria. A total of 120 borehole water samples were randomly obtained from Elelenwo, Rumuokparali, and Eliozu communities within Obio/Akpor Local Government Area during four sampling periods representing different seasons of the year. Samples were analyzed using established microbiological procedures, and isolates were identified through cultural and molecular techniques. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was carried out using the Kirby–Bauer disc diffusion method in accordance with CLSI standards to determine resistance patterns. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis was further employed to detect the presence of the antibiotic resistance gene blaTEM and the toxigenic gene stn among the isolates.The Salmonella isolates resistance showed 100% resistance Cefotaxime, Nitrofurantoin, Cefexime and Ceftriazone, with overall MAR index ranging from 0.25 to 1.0. The 16S rRNA analysis identified the relatedness of Salmonella enterica subspecies to montevideo strain 11TTUC-046, paratyphi C strain SA49, typhi strain PU4; typhi strain MSAR18, and enteritidis strain SA26. The study also revealed the presence of antibiotics resistance (blaTEM) and toxigenic (stn) gene markers in all the isolates. The study has shown the prevalence of different strains of Salmonella species with virulence gene biomarkers and their potentials to resist conventional antibiotics. The findings from this study therefore highlights the need for water treatment practices and regulated antibiotics stewardship.

This study evaluated the physicochemical properties of sachet water brands in Kaduna South Local Government Area (LGA), Kaduna State, Nigeria using appropriate standard methods. The results for the physicochemical parameters revealed that turbidity had values from 0.51-1.86 NTU, pH, 6.37-7.52, TDS, 28.8-173ppm, Hardness, 36-192ppm, Chloride, 12.24-55.51ppm. It indicate that most physicochemical parameters complied with the Nigerian Standard for Drinking Water Quality-NSDWQ and the World Health Organization-WHO guidelines, except for elevated turbidity values in some brands and deviations in pH and total hardness in others. Critically, bacteriological analysis revealed the presence of Escherichia coli and high coliform counts in several brands, indicating faecal contamination. These findings suggest potential health risks and highlight the need for improved water treatment practices and stricter regulatory oversight to ensure safe drinking water for consumers.

Assessment of water quality and associated health risks in community-managed water systems in highland areas: A case study Chiang Rai province, Thailand

Groundwater represents an essential resource for domestic and agricultural use, and its physicochemical and microbiological quality directly affects public health. This study assessed the bacteriological quality of untreated well water in the province of Fez-Meknes, specifically in the Aïn Tawjdate area, and evaluated seasonal variations in bacterial contamination. During the spring and summer of 2023, groundwater samples were collected from several wells. A total of 139 bacterial strains were isolated and identified using API biochemical galleries. The most frequently detected species were Aeromonas hydrophila gr.1 (6.47%), Aeromonas hydrophila gr.2 (9.35%), Enterobacter cloacae (7.19%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (10.07%), and Flavimonas oryzihabitans (6.47%), among others. Genetic variability among ten E. cloacae isolates was further explored using ERIC-PCR profiling; the strains differed by more than three fragments and showed less than 80% similarity; therefore, they were considered as distinct ERIC types. Statistical analyses (Chi-square, Fisher’s exact, Tukey HSD, one-way ANOVA, and two-sided Dunnett tests) revealed no significant differences in bacterial load between wells within the same season, with p-values > 0.05 according to ANOVA. However, a significant increase in contamination levels was observed in summer compared with spring. These findings highlight the potential health risks associated with the consumption of untreated groundwater and underline the need for regular microbiological monitoring and improved water treatment practices in rural communities.

Cholera, a major public health concern caused by the Vibrio cholerae bacterium, remains a pressing issue in remote regions of Nigeria, particularly during the dry season when access to clean and treated water is scarce. We seeks to develop a robust model to better understand the rapid transmission of cholera in these areas and assess the effectiveness of various interventionstrategies, including public health education, antibiotic treatments, improved water treatment practices, and enhanced environmental sanitation. This addresses the existence and uniqueness of the model, its positivity and boundedness properties, and calculates the basic reproduction number, ( ) 0 R , which serves as a critical threshold for disease dynamics. Specifically, when ( 1) 0 R  , thedisease spread will diminish over time, while ( 1) 0 R  indicates sustained transmission. Both local and global stability analyses of the model were conducted, alongside a sensitivity analysis to identify key parameters influencing disease control. Furthermore, numerical simulations utilizing the homotopy perturbation method were employed to evaluate the specific contributions of controlmeasures in reducing cholera transmission. The findings offer critical insights into designing effective interventions, particularly by enhancing access to safe water and implementing targeted public health strategies, to curb cholera outbreaks in resource-limited settings.

This study examined the knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) among residents in selected barangays of Maguindanao. It specifically explored sources of household water for domestic and drinking purposes, water treatment practices, toilet facilities, awareness of open defecation, waste disposal methods, and hygiene practices such as handwashing and tooth brushing. Using a descriptive research design, data were gathered from 60 household members across six barangays in Maguindanao del Sur and Maguindanao del Norte through purposive sampling. Findings revealed that most households (55%) obtained drinking water from piped yard/plot sources, while 31.66% used improvised filters such as cloth or sponge to make water safer for consumption. A significant number of households (63.33%) lacked toilet facilities, leading to open defecation in bushes, fields, or rivers, although most respondents demonstrated awareness of its negative health effects. In terms of waste management, 36.66% practiced direct disposal without storage, and 61.66% discarded garbage near their homes. The majority of household waste consisted of paper (83.33%), with 78.33% of households lacking trash bins. Hygiene practices were also found to be inadequate, with respondents primarily washing hands in kitchen-built lavatories but brushing their teeth rarely, as reflected in a low mean score of 1.661. In conclusion, while residents showed awareness of sanitation-related health risks, gaps remained in toilet availability, water treatment, waste management, and personal hygiene practices. These findings highlight the urgent need for improved facilities, community education, and strengthened WASH interventions in the studied barangays.

The water sector consumes approximately 15% of Jordan's total energy consumption highlighting the need for effective energy management and efficiency measures to ensure long-term water-energy security. In surface water treatment plants, energy use is concentrated in two main areas: the energy required for the treatment process itself and the energy used for pumping water into public distribution networks. This study presents a comprehensive water-energy performance evaluation for one of the largest surface water treatment plants in Jordan located in the north of Jordan. The analysis quantifies energy consumption associated with both the treatment process and pumping water. Specific energy consumption (SEC), expressed in kWh/m3, is used as the primary performance metric to assess operational efficiency. Over a 21-month monitoring period, the analysis showed that the treatment plant had an average monthly SEC of 0.4106 kWh/m3. This value is comparable to those reported for similar facilities worldwide. To align with Jordan's national target of achieving 50% renewable energy by 2030, the study proposes a solar photovoltaic (PV) system to meet the plant's energy demand. The system is designed to fully cover the plant's consumption, enabling net-zero energy operation and positioning it as the first green-certified surface water treatment plant in Jordan. With the proposed PV system, an estimated 3270.42 tons of CO2 emissions annually from conventional power generation could be avoided. The findings offer practical recommendations to enhance energy efficiency and advance sustainable water treatment practices in the country.

This study presents a statistical modelling and optimization of an argon-activated electrohydraulic plasma discharge (EHPD) process for the degradation and mineralization of p-nitrophenol (p-NP) in water. The EHPD reactor design incorporated dual dielectric plates to initiate plasma discharge through a central orifice. A fractional factorial design (FFD) was first employed to screen four operating variables, including argon flow rate, pH, applied power, and persulfate dosage, on the p-NP degradation efficiency and energy yield, revealing argon flow rate and applied power as two identified, significant process factors. These were then further optimized using a central composite design (CCD) and response surface methodology (RSM), with the optimal operating condition found to be 2.73 L/min and 128.6 W for argon flow rate and applied power, respectively. Under the optimal operating conditions, 10 min treatment of 50 mg/L p-NP achieved a degradation efficiency of 94.2% and 75.8% total organic carbon (TOC) removal, along with a first-order reaction rate constant of 0.296 min−1 and an energy efficiency of 0.22 g/kWh. The reaction mechanism for p-NP degradation by EHPD was proposed and confirmed with optical emission spectroscopy and radical scavengers. The optimized EHPD process proved both effective and energy-efficient in treating p-nitrophenol, highlighting its potential as a scalable and sustainable plasma-based technology for eliminating persistent organic pollutants and promoting greener water treatment practices.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) surveillance plays a critical role in tracking emerging trends and informing evidence-based policies. This study assessed bacterial contamination and resistance profiles of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in 1886 drinking water samples from 12 regions of Ghana between April 2024 and April 2025. Findings were compared to a baseline study from the Greater Accra region (2022). Water samples analysed included sachet, bottled, tap, borehole, well, and surface water. Isolates were tested for antibiotic susceptibility using the Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion method. The majority of treated and packaged water samples were free from bacterial contamination. E. coli was frequently detected in untreated surface water (68%) and well water (63%). E. coli isolates from untreated water samples exhibited high resistance to cefuroxime (74%) and amoxicillin-clavulanate (50%); resistance to gentamicin increased from 3% in 2022 to 35% in 2025, while ertapenem resistance rose from 6% to 18%. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) E. coli isolates were found in samples from eight regions, and MDR P. aeruginosa in three, mostly from borehole water. These findings highlight the urgency to integrate AMR surveillance into national water quality initiatives, along with coordinated public health interventions, to educate communities on household water treatment practices and the health risks posed by AMR.

This study evaluates the physico-chemical quality of drinking water from various sources in Magburaka Town, Tonkolili District, Sierra Leone, to identify potential health risks associated with water consumption. Water samples were collected from five sources, including hand-dug wells, taps, and streams, during a three-month period encompassing the dry and wet seasons. The samples were analyzed for key parameters such as pH, temperature, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, and concentrations of heavy metals and other chemical contaminants. The results highlighted variations in water quality across different sources, with some samples exhibiting parameters outside the acceptable limits set by WHO guidelines. Specifically, concerns were noted regarding elevated levels of heavy metals like lead and zinc, which pose health risks upon prolonged exposure. The study emphasizes the impact of local environmental factors, such as mining activities and agricultural runoff, on water quality. Additionally, the research underscores the importance of adequate water treatment and proper sanitation practices to mitigate health risks associated with contaminated water. The findings advocate for improved water management policies, routine monitoring, and community education on water safety. This research contributes valuable data to inform interventions aimed at enhancing water quality and safeguarding public health in Sierra Leone, particularly in rural and semi-urban settings where reliance on untreated water sources remains high. Overall, the study underscores the critical need for sustainable water resource management and infrastructure development to address waterborne health hazards in the region, the research therefore recommends that further researchers should embark on a comparative study on the correlation and a clear cut of laboratory analysis on drinking water quality in other cities and its associated diseases.

Abstract - This paper evaluated the public’s level of awareness on drinking water quality in Birendranagar City (Surkhet Valley), Surkhet District, Nepal, specifically focusing on users of the Jhupra Khola Water Supply Project. Using a survey of 96 respondents, the study employed descriptive statistics and Spearman rank correlation analysis. The study found a moderate general level of water quality awareness (mean=3.45, SD=0.52). The results showed that survey respondents exhibited high awareness related to both the sensory quality (such as color, odor, taste, and visible particles in the water) and the severity and experience of water quality issues. Respondents demonstrated moderate awareness in relation to practices and sources of drinking water, including frequency of supply, drinking tap water, and water treatment. Furthermore, correlation analysis indicated positive relationships; for instance, there was a very strong association between a consistent interval of supply and drinking tap water (r = 0.865). Perceptions of water quality issues were associated most strongly with water color (r = 0.887). However, preventive practices (covering water containers, treatment of water) exhibited little or no correlation with the sensory quality of the supply. In conclusion, the research has identified that baseline knowledge of water aesthetics in the area is high but recommends additional educational approaches to promote awareness of and to apply protective water management and treatment practices within the community. Key Words: Water Quality Awareness, Birendranagar, Sensory Properties, Safe Water Practices

Total fluorescence as a surrogate for organic carbon measurement: Implications for rapid water and wastewater quality assessment.

Waterborne diseases continue to pose a significant health threat in developing countries, particularly in rural areas with limited access to clean water, proper sanitation, and adequate water treatment. This study investigated the prevalence of waterborne diseases in relation to water sources, treatment methods, and sanitation conditions across three tehsils of District Karak, Pakistan. A descriptive cross-sectional survey was conducted, analyzing 582 reported cases from Karak, Takht-e-Nasrati, and Banda Daud Shah tehsils. The overall distribution of waterborne diseases indicated that diarrhea was the most prevalent, accounting for 14.3% (83/582) of cases, followed by cholera at 10.0% (58/582), and typhoid at 7.6% (44/582). Hepatitis A, H. pylori, and constipation represented smaller proportions of the total reported cases, specifically 2.6% (15/582), 1.0% (6/582), and 0.3% (2/582), respectively. Tehsil-wise data showed that Karak (n=180) reported diarrhea as the most frequent disease at 16.7% (30/180), followed by typhoid at 12.2% (22/180). In Takht-e-Nasrati (n=202), diarrhea was also the most prevalent at 9.9% (20/202), with cholera following at 6.9% (14/202). Banda Daud Shah (n=200) exhibited the highest disease burden, with diarrhea at 16.5% (33/200), cholera at 15.0% (30/200), typhoid at 8.0% (16/200), and hepatitis A at 4.0% (8/200). Notably, cases of H. pylori and constipation were exclusively observed in Banda Daud Shah. Regarding water sources, wells were the primary source, used in 66.7% (388/582) of cases. Other sources included water tanks (13.4%, 78/582), tube wells (12.7%, 74/582), pressure pumps (9.4%, 55/582), bottled water (2.7%, 16/582), river streams (2.4%, 14/582), and natural sources (0.3%, 2/582). Water treatment practices were poorly adopted: only 9.1% (53/582) of respondents reported boiling water, 7.9% (46/582) used filtration, and just 1.4% (8/582) applied chemical treatment. Sanitation data revealed that flush toilets were widely used (93.1%, 542/582), while pit latrines (4.3%, 25/582) and open defecation (1.4%, 8/582) were still present in some households. In conclusion, diarrhea, cholera, and typhoid remain the most prevalent waterborne diseases in District Karak, with the greatest burden observed in Banda Daud Shah. Despite the high availability of flush toilets, the consumption of contaminated water continues to pose a serious public health risk.