Water Management Regimes Research Articles

High nitrous oxide fluxes from rice indicate the need to manage water for both long- and short-term climate impacts

Global rice cultivation is estimated to account for 2.5% of current anthropogenic warming because of emissions of methane (CH4), a short-lived greenhouse gas. This estimate assumes a widespread prevalence of continuous flooding of most rice fields and hence does not include emissions of nitrous oxide (N2O), a long-lived greenhouse gas. Based on the belief that minimizing CH4 from rice cultivation is always climate beneficial, current mitigation policies promote increased use of intermittent flooding. However, results from five intermittently flooded rice farms across three agroecological regions in India indicate that N2O emissions per hectare can be three times higher (33 kg-N2O⋅ha-1⋅season-1) than the maximum previously reported. Correlations between N2O emissions and management parameters suggest that N2O emissions from rice across the Indian subcontinent might be 30-45 times higher under intensified use of intermittent flooding than under continuous flooding. Our data further indicate that comanagement of water with inorganic nitrogen and/or organic matter inputs can decrease climate impacts caused by greenhouse gas emissions up to 90% and nitrogen management might not be central to N2O reduction. An understanding of climate benefits/drawbacks over time of different flooding regimes because of differences in N2O and CH4 emissions can help select the most climate-friendly water management regimes for a given area. Region-specific studies of rice farming practices that map flooding regimes and measure effects of multiple comanaged variables on N2O and CH4 emissions are necessary to determine and minimize the climate impacts of rice cultivation over both the short term and long term.

Regional food production and land redistribution as adaptation to climate change in the U.S. Northeast Seaboard

Potential corn and winter-wheat grain, and potato crop yields in the United States Northeastern Seaboard Region (NESR) were simulated under current and future climate scenarios and two water management regimes to evaluate production shifts and land-based adaptation methods. Geospatial data consisting of historical climate, land use, soil, and crop management were coupled with a weather generator, three explanatory crop models, and spatially and temporally downscaled mid-century climate change scenarios to conduct the simulations at sub-county spatial resolution. Unadapted winter wheat yield increased 48% in response to mid-century projected climate changes, but corn grain declined 19% and potato 42% across the NESR, resulting in a net loss in caloric production. The contribution of the three crops to regional food production with respect to historical and mid-century climate conditions was evaluated on the basis of caloric content as a measure of yield capacity. The caloric content declined by 7 to 15% across the three commodities when averaged among all states in the region if no adaptation changes were implemented. Two land redistribution schemes were derived to compensate for this loss by re-allocating the existing land-base within each county to specific crops based on model predicted changes in productivity along with identifying additional increments of additional potential land. These approaches showed that less than 1.6% of the potentially available agricultural land base in the region would be needed to compensate for calorie losses due to climate change. These results qualify land redistribution as a pragmatic and direct adaptation strategy to the threat of climate change on regional food security.

Impacts of the water framework directive on learning and knowledge practices in a Swedish catchment

Catchments are complex social-ecological systems involving multiple, and often competing, interests. Water governance and management regimes are increasingly embracing pluralistic, participatory, and holistic norms as a means to engage with issues of complexity, uncertainty, and value-conflicts. Integrated, participatory approaches are theoretically linked to improved learning amongst stakeholders across sectors and decision-making that is grounded in shared knowledge, experiences and scientific evidence. However, few studies have empirically examined the impacts of an integrated approach to learning and knowledge practices related to water resources. Here, a Swedish sub-catchment that has adopted such an approach in association with implementation of the European Water Framework Directive (WFD) is examined. Interview-based analyses show that WFD implementation has both helped and hindered learning and knowledge practices surrounding both water planning and spatial planning. Whilst communities of practice have developed in the study area, a number of important challenges remain. These include the rigid goal-orientation of the WFD, the fragmentation of knowledge caused by an over-reliance on external consultants, as well as a lack of resources to synthesise information from multiple sources. Present results raise questions regarding the efficacy of the WFD to sufficiently enable the development of learning and knowledge practices capable of handling the complexity, uncertainties and value-conflicts facing catchments in Sweden and elsewhere.

Cadmium dynamics in soil pore water and uptake by rice: Influences of soil-applied selenite with different water managements

Cadmium (Cd) in rice grains is a potential threat to human health. This study investigated the effects of selenite fertilisation (0 mg kg−1, 0.5 mg kg−1, and 1.0 mg kg−1) on soil solution Cd dynamics and rice uptake. Rice was grown in two Cd-contaminated soils in Jiangxi and Hunan Provinces under two different sets of conditions: aerobic and flooded. The experiments were conducted in pots. The plants were harvested at the seedling stage and at maturity to determine their Cd levels. Soil solutions were also extracted during the growing season to monitor Cd dynamics. The results showed that in the Jiangxi soil (pH 5.25), Cd concentrations in the soil solutions, seedlings, and mature rice plants were higher under aerobic than under flooded water management conditions. In the Hunan soil (pH 7.26), however, flooding decreased Cd levels in the rice seedlings but not in mature plants. Selenite additions to the Hunan soil decreased Cd concentrations in the soil solutions and in the mature rice plants. These effects were not observed for the solutions or the plants from Jiangxi soil amended with selenite. Relative to the control treatment, 0.5 mg kg−1 selenite decreased the rice grain Cd content by 45.2% and 67.7% under aerobic and flooding conditions, respectively. The results demonstrated that water management regimes affected rice Cd uptake more effectively in Jiangxi than in Hunan soil, whereas selenite addition was more effective in Hunan than in Jiangxi soil. Selenite addition was also more effective at reducing rice grain Cd levels when it was applied under flooding than under aerobic conditions.

Reducing drainage water phosphorus concentration with rice cultivation under different water management regimes

Phosphorus is a critical water quality indicator of farm drainage systems. In South Florida, rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivation has the potential to reduce phosphorus concentration in drainage water through crop uptake under varying flooding systems. A two-year study was conducted to assess drainage water quality under four different flooding systems conventionally used for rice production – 15 cm continuous flood; 5 cm continuous flood; 15 cm with midseason drawdown; and 5 cm with midseason drawdown. In the first growing season, 15 cm continuous flood treatment had the highest reduction of total phosphorus and particulate phosphorus concentrations in drainage water. However, in the second growing season, we did not observe significant differences among water treatments, which was likely due to the release of phosphorus from other sources like soil and rice straw to the water column which masked treatment effects. On average, in both years, all flood treatments reduced total phosphorus concentrations by 42 ± 8% between inflow and outflow water. No phosphorus fertilizer was added and with each harvest, rice grain potentially removed 15.7 ± 3 kg phosphorus ha−1. The results indicate that rice cultivation in fertile soils can successfully reduce phosphorus concentrations in drainage water under well managed water-flow conditions.

Release of cadmium in contaminated paddy soil amended with NPK fertilizer and lime under water management

Agricultural soils contaminated with cadmium (Cd) pose a risk to receiving surface water via drainage or runoff. A 90-day laboratory incubation experiment was conducted to investigate the release characteristics and transformation of Cd from contaminated paddy soil amended with agrochemical (NPK fertilizer) and lime (L) under water management regimes of continuous flooding (F) and drying-wetting cycles (DW). The result showed that the dissolved Cd concentrations in overlying water of the fertilizer treatment under flooding (NPK+F) and drying-wetting (NPK+DW) reached up to 81.0 μg/L and 276 μg/L, and were much higher than that from the corresponding controls without NPK fertilizer addition at the end of experiment. The Cd concentration showed significantly negative correlation with overlying water pH, but positive correlation with soil redox potential and concentrations of dissolved total nitrogen, sulfate and manganese in overlying water (P < 0.05), indicating that drying-wetting cycles and N fertilizer addition may enhance soil Cd release. The Cd concentrations in overlying water from all treatments except NPK+L+F treatment exceeded the Cd threshold limit of Chinese Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water (10 μg/L Grade V) and poses potential risk to surface water quality. Meanwhile, the proportion of Cd in the acid-soluble fraction from all incubated soil except NPK+L+F treatment increased compared to before incubation. The results indicated that continuous flooding was a reasonable water management candidate coupled with lime addition for immobilizing soil Cd.

Arsenic uptake and accumulation in rice (Oryza sativa L.) with selenite fertilization and water management

The accumulation of arsenic (As) in rice grain is a potential threat to human health. Our study investigated the possible mediatory role of selenite fertilization on As uptake and accumulation by rice (Oryza sativa L.) under different water management regimes (aerobic or flooded) in a pot experiment. Soil solutions were also extracted during the growing season to monitor As dynamics. Results showed that As contents in the soil solutions, seedlings, and mature rice were higher under flooded than under aerobic water management. Under aerobic conditions, selenite additions slightly increased As concentrations in soil solutions (in the last two samplings), but decreased As levels in rice plants. Relative to the control, 0.5 mg kg−1 selenite decreased rice grain As by 27.5%. Under flooded conditions, however, selenite additions decreased As in soil solutions, while increased As in rice grain. Tendencies also showed that selenite additions decreased the proportion of As in rice shoots both at the seedling stage and maturity, and were more effective in aerobic soil. Our results demonstrate that the effect of selenite fertilizer on As accumulation by rice is related to water management.

Green infrastructure for sustainable urban water management: Practices of five forerunner cities

In the search for both immediate solutions and long-term transitions towards sustainability, green infrastructures (GI) are increasingly linked to urban water management. In this study, the GI-based urban water management practices of five cities famous for their progressive approach to water management were investigated. Based on reviews of open-source city plans and strategies, supplemented with information obtained directly from city managers, the purpose was to share best practices for the transition to sustainable urban water management and to gain insight into the role, if any, of GI in urban water management. An analytical frame based on transition theory was adopted. All five cities represented states of transition at the near end of a sustainable urban water management scale. Despite some overlap in challenges concerning water supply, environmental protection, and flood risk management, the development target of each city was unique, as were their solutions. GI has been applied as a way to reduce water footprints in Singapore and Berlin, to protect the environment in Philadelphia, and to help save potable water for consumption in Melbourne and Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-city. Despite differences in scale, GI was, in all cases, applied as a supplement to the conventional water infrastructure. All five cities reveal a strong top-down approach towards sustainable urban water management and a strong mindset on GI's role for future development. However, all five cities point to similar challenges for GI implementation, including space and cost constrains as well as barriers for inter-sectorial and stakeholder collaboration, which limit the speed of city-wide upscaling of GI solutions and full realization of GI benefits. The study indicates a need for a simultaneous change in the cognitive, normative, and regulative conditions of the urban water management regime for sustainability transition. Such a change requires a better balance between top-down and bottom-up planning to overcome barriers and foster innovation. The five cities jointly contribute to a noteworthy list of green solutions, city-wide strategies and guidelines, pilot project programs, regulations, and incentive programs, which may serve as inspiration for other cities' transition plans.

Soil Water Dynamics in Apple Orchards of Different Ages on the Loess Plateau of China

Core Ideas Soil water dynamics in apple orchards (initially 7 and 17 yr old) were studied. Mean soil water content was consistently higher in the 7‐yr‐old orchard. Mean soil water storage was consistently lower in the 17‐yr‐old orchard. A dried soil layer had formed in the 17‐yr‐old orchard. Tree age should be considered when formulating soil water management regimes. Knowledge of soil water in apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) orchards is necessary for formulating robust management strategies and sound planning of apple plantations with limited water resources, such as on the Chinese Loess Plateau. In this work, we assessed the relationship between the age of trees and soil water dynamics in apple orchards that were initially 7 and 17 yr old in the Wangdonggou watershed on the Loess Plateau. For this, we monitored soil water content (SWC, measured using a neutron probe) and calculated soil water storage (SWS), available SWS (ASWS), and soil desiccation along 0‐ to 600‐cm soil profiles in both orchards from May to September in 2012, 2013, 2014, and 2015. For both orchards, annual mean SWCs along the 0‐ to 600‐cm profile differed during the past 4 yr. Mean SWC along the profile was consistently higher in the 7‐yr‐old orchard at both monthly and annual timescales. Accordingly, monthly mean SWS and ASWS along the 0‐ to 600‐cm soil profiles were consistently lower in the 17‐yr‐old orchard. Moreover, a dried soil layer (DSL) had formed in the soil of the 17‐yr‐old orchard and there was slightly desiccation in the 320‐ to 600‐cm layers, but no DSL was detected in the 7‐yr‐old orchard during the four study years. Tree age was mostly responsible for the differences in soil water dynamics in apple orchards. Therefore, it is important to take tree age into account when considering soil water management regimes in orchards in both the focal region of the Loess Plateau and other water‐limited regions around the world.

Water management regimes alter Pb uptake and translocation in fragrant rice

Rice cultivation in lead (Pb) polluted soils often leads to high Pb contents in rice grains. The present study investigated the dynamics of Pb uptake under different water regimes in two fragrant rice cultivars i.e., Guixiangzhan and Nongxiang-18. Results revealed that water dynamics regulated the antioxidant activities in both rice cultivars under Pb toxicity. Compared to continuous ponding (CP), taken as control, alternate wetting and drying (AWD) reduced the Pb contents in roots, stems, leaves, and grains up to 17%, 41%, 22%, and 52% in Guixiangzhan and 23%, 19%, 17%, and 37% in Nongxiang-18, respectively. Furthermore, AWD-treatments reduced paddy yield from 11% to 21% in Guixiangzhan and 11–33% in Nongxiang-18 under Pb toxicity. In conclusion, Pb loadings in fragrant rice can be regulated by effective water management and/or by controlling irrigation water at different growth stages. Special control measures or management is required to cultivate the rice in metal(loid)s polluted soils.

Improving governance in transboundary cooperation in water and climate change adaptation

AbstractClimate change adaptation in water management is a water governance issue. While neither climate change nor water respects national borders, adaptation in water management should be treated as a transboundary water governance issue. However, transboundary water management is, in essence, more complex than national water management because the water management regimes usually differ more between countries than within countries. This paper provides 63 lessons learned from almost a decade of cooperation on transboundary climate adaptation in water management under the UNECE Water Convention and puts these into the context of the OECD principles on water governance. It highlights that good water governance entails a variety of activities that are intertwined and cannot be considered stand-alone elements. The paper also shows that this wide variety of actions is needed to develop a climate change adaptation strategy in water management. Each of the lessons learned can be considered concrete actions connected to one or more of the OECD principles, where a range of actions may be needed to fulfil one principle. The paper concludes that developing climate change adaptation measures needs to improve in parallel the water governance system at transboundary scale.

Estimation of total CH4 emission from Japanese rice paddies using a new estimation method based on the DNDC-Rice simulation model

Methane (CH4) is a greenhouse gas, and paddy fields are one of its main anthropogenic sources. In Japan, country-specific emission factors (EFs) have been applied since 2003 to estimate national-scale CH4 emission from paddy field. However, these EFs did not consider the effects of factors that influence CH4 emission (e.g., amount of organic C inputs, field drainage rate, climate) and can therefore produce estimates with high uncertainty. To improve the reliability of national-scale estimates, we revised the EFs based on simulations by the DeNitrification-DeComposition-Rice (DNDC-Rice) model in a previous study. Here, we estimated total CH4 emission from paddy fields in Japan from 1990 to 2010 using these revised EFs and databases on independent variables that influence emission (organic C application rate, paddy area, proportions of paddy area for each drainage rate class and water management regime). CH4 emission ranged from 323 to 455ktCyr−1 (1.1 to 2.2 times the range of 206 to 285ktCyr−1 calculated using previous EFs). Although our method may have overestimated CH4 emissions, most of the abovementioned differences were presumably caused by underestimation by the previous method due to a lack of emission data from slow-drainage fields, lower organic C inputs than recent levels, neglect of regional climatic differences, and underestimation of the area of continuously flooded paddies. Our estimate (406ktC in 2000) was higher than that by the IPCC Tier 1 method (305ktC in 2000), presumably because regional variations in CH4 emission rates are not accounted for by the Tier 1 method.

Effects of watering regime and nitrogen application rate on the photosynthetic parameters, physiological characteristics, and agronomic traits of rice

Water and nitrogen (N) are two of the most important abiotic factors limiting rice yield. However, a little information is available on why a moderate water and N interaction significantly increase rice biomass, from the point of view of photosynthetic physiology. A pot experiment with three water regimes [continued flood (CF), alternate wetting and moderate drying (WMD), and alternate wetting and severe drying (WSD)] and four N application levels (no nitrogen, N0; 90 kg hm−2, N1; 180 kg hm−2, N2; 270 kg hm−2, N3) was carried out to investigate this problem. Results demonstrated that WSD significantly inhibited rice height, leaf area, chlorophyll content, photosynthesis, and yield at the four different N levels, as compared to that with CF and WMD. However, WMD substantially alleviated these reductions, and their values were not significantly different from those of CF. Contents of leaf soluble protein and total chlorophyll in WMD were increased compared to the WSD, and this mitigating effect was beneficial to the increase of rice photosynthesis and yield development. Photosynthesis in rice leaf was significantly affected by water status but not N level. Analysis of variance demonstrated a significant effect of water on spikelet number, which indicates that the reduction of spikelet number under water stress may be the major reason for its low yield. Therefore, we concluded that WMD could be considered as an effective water management regime to obtain high yield in rice production, and its strengthened drought tolerance was closely associated with the higher dry matter and in the physiological characteristics including an increase in spikelet number, chlorophyll and soluble protein contents, and photosynthetic rate.

Near-isogenic lines of IR64 (Oryza sativa subsp. indica cv.) introgressed with DEEPER ROOTING 1 and STELE TRANSVERSAL AREA 1 improve rice yield formation over the background parent across three water management regimes

Three near-isogenic lines (NILs) of Oryza sativa subsp. indica cv. IR64 (Dro1-NIL, Sta1-NIL, Dro1+Sta1-NIL) with DEEPER ROOTING 1 (DRO1), a novel gene for steeper root growth angle, and/or with Stele Transversal Area 1 (Sta1), a QTL for wider stele area, were tested under flooded lowland (FL), alternate wetting and drying lowland (AWD), and rainfed upland (UP) conditions in 2013 and 2014 to compare the effects of DRO1 and Sta1 on yield across different water management regimes. Genotypic variation and water management effects were significant for grain yield, aboveground biomass, and harvest index, as well as their interactions with year, but no significant genotype × water interaction was detected. Dro1-NIL had 14% higher yield than that of IR64 across the three water conditions due to higher harvest index, aboveground biomass, leaf area index, and number of grains. Sta1 tended to reduce the carbon isotope composition (δ13C), leading to a higher harvest index of Sta1-NIL than that of IR64, but grain yield was not increased. Dro1+Sta1-NIL had the highest fraction of intercepted radiation, cumulative radiation interception, and panicle number, with a small but insignificant yield improvement over IR64, but the combination of DRO1 and Sta1 did not surpass the increment from the effects of DRO1 alone. AWD in the more rainy year 2014 attained both higher water productivity and higher biomass, with significant water by year interaction for water productivity. Genotypic variation in water productivity was related with higher leaf area index and fraction interception, with Dro1-NIL larger than in IR64 and Sta1-NIL.

River use, conservation and management among riverine communities in Southeastern Nigeria

Water holds important and diverse benefits for society. It is essential for economic and social development and is important for maintaining the livelihoods of people both in rural and urban areas. The connection between people and water dates back to the earliest origins of life and show the cultural values and social differences that are present in societies. With growing water scarcity, competition for the resource, climate change impacts and pollution, integrated water resource management has been increasingly enlisted as a way to better manage the resource. However the problem remains that many water resource planning and management regimes do not capture the views of the myriad of stakeholders and the many benefits of ecological services. This paper examines river use, conservation and management among riverine communities in South Eastern Nigeria using descriptive statistics on primary data collected from a survey of rural households along two rivers in southeastern Nigeria., Although more than 60% of the respondents in the Local Government areas sampled indicated uses of water for various domestic ends and that other uses like recreation, industry and ecosystem services were indicated and that they are able to attach economic values to these roles, the communities lack the capacity for resource management and conservation. It proposes a strong need for public enlightenment and empowerment for effective water resource management. Keywords: Water use, Conservation, Livelihoods, Participation, Common property

Use of clay to remediate cadmium contaminated soil under different water management regimes

We examined in situ remediation of sepiolite on cadmium-polluted soils with diverse water regimes, and several variables including brown rice Cd, exchangeable Cd, pH, and available Fe/P. pH, available Fe/P in soils increased gradually during continuous flooding, which contributed to Cd absorption on colloids. In control group (untreated soils), compared to conventional irrigation, brown rice Cd in continuous flooding reduced by 37.9%, and that in wetting irrigation increased by 31.0% (p<0.05). In contrast to corresponding controls, brown rice Cd in sepiolite treated soils reduced by 44.4%, 34.5% and 36.8% under continuous flooding, conventional irrigation and wetting irrigation (p<0.05), and exchangeable Cd in amended soils reduced by 27.5–49.0%, 14.3–40.5%, and 24.9–32.8% under three water management regimes (p<0.05). Compared to corresponding controls, decreasing amplitudes of exchangeable Cd and brown rice Cd in sepiolite treated soils were higher in continuous flooding than in conventional irrigation and wetting irrigation. Continuous flooding management promoted soil Cd immobilization by sepiolite.

Collaborative Modeling to Assess Drought Resiliency of Snow‐Fed River Dependent Communities in the Western United States: A Case Study in the Truckee‐Carson River System

Assessing the drought resilience of snow‐fed river dependent communities in the arid Western United States has taken on critical importance in response to changing climatic conditions. The process of assessing drought resiliency involves understanding the extent to which snow‐fed dependent communities can absorb the effects of uncertain and variable water supplies while acknowledging and encouraging their capacity for adaptation. Participatory research approaches are particularly well suited to assess resiliency in this context because they rely upon local water managers’ knowledge and perspectives. The research presented here provides measured insight into local water managers’ perceptions of drought resiliency in the Truckee‐Carson River System in northwestern Nevada. These findings are reported in the context of the collaborative modeling research design developed for this case study. The objectives of this study are: (1) to define resiliency and present a rationale for a participatory approach to assess drought resiliency in snow‐fed arid river basins in the Western United States; (2) to outline collaborative modeling as a participatory research design developed for the Truckee‐Carson River System case study area; (3) to describe the development and implementation of a resiliency assessment undertaken to implement this research design; (4) to highlight selected results of the assessment, summarizing interviews with 66 water managers in the case study area; (5) to discuss the use of assessment findings to inform collaborative modeling toward adaptation strategies; and (6) to review lessons learned to date from the collaborative modeling case study and note opportunities for further exploration. According to water managers surveyed, climate change is very important and is mobilizing adaptation strategies that include improvements in communication and coordination with other water managers, monitoring and data collection,and planning. The majority of water managers indicate that future adaptation requires modifying institutionalized water management regimes to allow for temporary water leasing programs, water right stacking on the most productive agricultural lands while fallowing marginal lands,incentivizing water conservation, reducing or eliminating residential landscaping, and recruiting less water intensive industry to the region.

Building Capacities for Sustainable Water Governance at the Grassroots: “Organic Empowerment” and Its Policy Implications in Nicaragua

ABSTRACTMany of the most acute water crises globally are “everyday” crises experienced in impoverished rural areas and urban slums across the global South. Confronting these crises are thousands of community-based water management regimes—many operating “below the radar” of formal state policies. Arguably, a foremost challenge to constructing sustainable water governance concerns reconciling long-standing—yet politically and legally unrecognized—locally based governance structures with state policies designed and promoted from above. Bridging the scholarships on common property regimes and decentralized natural resource management, this article examines how policymakers and rural water committees confront the challenge of securing water access for domestic use. Specifically, this article documents the development of what is termed an “organic empowerment” of water committees in Nicaragua, arguing that this grassroots form of empowerment has contributed to the democratization of top-down policymaking. Ultimately, it reveals the complex, multiscalar tensions inherent in efforts to create new and recognize preexisting institutions for water governance.

Restoring Summer Base Flow under a Decentralized Water Management Regime: Constraints, Opportunities, and Outcomes in Mediterranean-Climate California

Seasonal rainfall dynamics in Mediterranean-climate coastal California place pressures on humans and aquatic ecosystems. Without rainfall during summer, residents and land managers commonly turn to streams and adjacent shallow aquifers to meet domestic, irrigation, and recreational water needs, often depleting the water necessary to support stream biota. The potential for adverse ecological impacts within this coupled natural-human system has led to interest in restoring summer base flow (especially for federally protected steelhead and coho salmon, which depend on flow through the summer dry season for juvenile survival) through methods such as reducing dry-season water abstractions. Characterizing constraints and opportunities has proven useful for planning streamflow restoration in Mediterranean-climate coastal California. Biophysical parameters such as ample rainfall and very low summer discharge are critical considerations, but institutional parameters are equally important: regional management practices and state laws can inhibit streamflow restoration, and implementation is dependent on interrelationships among residents, agency staff, and other stakeholders (which we term the egosystem) within each watershed. Additionally, while watershed-scale spatial analysis and field-based evaluations provided a solid foundation for exploring streamflow restoration needs, adaptation based on information from local stakeholders was often essential for prioritizing projects and understanding whether projects will have their intended benefits.

The evaluation of the heritage of the 1956 South African water policy

Purpose: Water management issues in poor communities in South Africa were never addressed directly by apartheid policies. The 1956 water policy was found not to be holistic in the management of the resource within the country. The growing economy of South Africa resulted in explosive urbanization, which gave rise to an increasing number of townships. The purpose of the paper is, therefore, threefold, namely: it outlines the water management challenges resulting from the 1956 water policy, it outlines the progression of implementing the apartheid ideologies in water management and, lastly, it relates the old policy of water management to today’s environment. The 1956 water policy had a colonial perspective, thus, this has created an observable challenge in the current endeavors of the water management regime. These challenges are presented in the paper in an effort to illustrate that the failures of today’s policies are largely historically embedded. Design/methodology/approach: A comprehensive framework of the evolution of the water management regime from the DWA’s library was used. Databases that contained historical policies of South Africa were also used to do a rigorous literature review. Because of the nature of the research, the study, therefore, uses both qualitative and quantitative methods of investigation. Findings: The old apartheid policies created a challenging ideological environment in the townships. This has resulted in the difficulty of implementing the current water policy in water management. The unintended consequences are difficult to factor into the current policies. Over time, communities collaborated and became defiant. The defiance of the water policy by the communities resulted in non-payment for the use of the resource. Implications: The challenges surfacing in the paper seem to imply that the current policy implementation in water management has an observable challenge that has a potential of hindering policy discourse in water management. Originality/value: New democracies have a tendency of being overly ambitious about the inclusive nature of the policy discourse. Ideologically, this means that implementation of the new policies cannot be done without challenges. This paper attempts to highlight that the 1956 water policy systematically created certain social norms and ideologies that have the potential to hinder new policy ideals in the townships. Keywords: water policy, black townships, apartheid ideologies, social dilemmas and water management practices. JEL Classification: Q25, J71