Waste Electrical And Electronic Equipment Directive Research Articles

Does the circularity end justify the means? A life cycle assessment of preparing waste electrical and electronic equipment for reuse

Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) pose a significant threat to the environment and public health due to the hazardous substances and the valuable and often scarce resources they contain. Policies for WEEE recycling have been adopted in most countries, while in the European Union the WEEE Directive renders preparing for reuse as a priority, although specific quantitative targets have not been imposed so far. Preparation for reuse to be effective requires improved WEEE collection networks and additional infrastructure, such as sorting and repair centres, all of which consume energy and materials, which also have environmental impacts. Moreover, refurbished appliances may be less energy efficient and there is a need to assess whether this benefit justifies the preparation for reuse burdens. The aim of this study was to investigate, under real-life operating conditions, whether the life cycle environmental impacts resulting from the preparation for reuse of WEEE are offset by the benefits of avoiding a new product purchase, which may have a lower energy consumption during its use lifespan. Data for desktops, laptops, monitors, printers, smartphones, and vacuum cleaners were collected from the two full-scale sorting centres in Greece, and life cycle assessments were performed. Results indicate that repair and reuse of smartphones leads to a reduction of their environmental impacts up to 25 %. To a lesser degree, laptops, desktops, and monitors, lead to reduce environmental impacts from −1.4 % to 19.2 %. For printers, the reductions are almost negligible, from 0.3 % to 3 %. On the other side, the repair and reuse of vacuum cleaners resulted in an increase of almost all their environmental impacts instead, even more than 70 % for marine and freshwater eutrophication. These findings can be used to the policy discourse for specific preparing for reuse targets and to inform decision-making. This could lead to prioritising specific categories for repair such as smartphones while avoiding specific WEEE categories from preparing for reuse such as vacuum cleaners and instead promote their substitution.

Estimating job creation potential of compliant WEEE pre-treatment in Ireland

While significant focus has been placed on the environmental and health impacts of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) treatment, a gap exists with respect to job creation in WEEE treatment. The creation of employment opportunities, and especially of decent work, is an important factor in the growing green and circular economies. This research investigates potential job creation in the Irish WEEE pre-treatment sector by examining the labour requirements at a certified e-recycling facility which conducts all necessary pre-treatment processes, as detailed in the WEEE Directive, and is currently treating 75% of Ireland's WEEE. The study developed and executed a method of estimating the mass of WEEE associated with full-time job equivalencies per category treated. Through observation and measurement of the methods and time required for each of the pre-treatment steps and using categorisations of WEEE established by United Nations University to assign weights per unit, it was determined that between 338 and 1,967 tonnes were required to equate with one full-time job for the categories large household appliances (LHA), CRT/LCD/LED screens, microwave ovens, and mixed waste. Subsequently, the results were applied in order to estimate the foregone jobs due to untreated WEEE arising in scrap metal collections. It was found that diversion of this waste to a WEEE pre-treatment facility would result in the creation of more than 12 jobs. This research opens doors to further investigate job creation across European Union (EU) member states and globally using the straightforward and consistently applicable and adaptable methods developed here.

WEEE closed-loop supply chain network management considering the damage levels of returned products.

Due to economic, social, and environmental concerns, managing waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) has become an important research area. The WEEE directive gives responsibility to producers for developing a system for recycling and disposal activities and handle all associated costs. This study proposes a mixed integer programming model for decision-makers to manage their activities on the WEEE closed-loop supply chain network. A decision-maker may be a single producer of any size or a managing body formed by a group of producers and/or third-party companies in the network. The model contributes to the research field by integrating product returns with different quality and damage levels. A set of scenarios was designed to evaluate the effects of the directive and the network design related issues (e.g., the minimum collection rates, the number of producers and stores in the network) on the objective function. The results indicate that the capacity balance among stores, producers, and recovery centers is vital to make the network profitable and sustainable.

Circularity in Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive. Comparison of a Manufacturer’s Danish and Norwegian Operations

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) as a reverse supply chain (RSC) has a low degree of circularity, mainly focusing on recovering or recycling. Targets to increase the circularity have recently been introduced in the EU WEEE directive. In this case study, we have investigated how WEEE is handled within an electric and electronic (EE) equipment manufacturer. The case study includes findings from two different Nordic countries, Norway and Denmark, with interviews of six stakeholders. The case study shows that there are significant differences in how the case company fulfills its extended producer responsibility (EPR), especially related to reporting. The study also found that there is a mismatch between the ambitions in the WEEE directive and a company’s approach related to circularity in the end-of-life phase of an EE product. Based on the results of this case study and from the literature we propose recommendations on alignment with other directives and on a common information regime within the WEEE RSC.

An assessment of achievements of the WEEE Directive in promoting movement up the waste hierarchy: experiences in the UK

Rapidly developing technology and an increasing number of products containing electrical or electronic functions, has led to discarded electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) being one of the fastest growing waste streams. The European Union (EU) has enacted several iterations of the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive to address this complex waste stream. However, recycling dominates treatments for e-waste, despite the established ‘waste hierarchy’ showing waste prevention and reuse are generally preferable to recycling.This paper reports on 30 semi-structured interviews, undertaken across the EEE value chain, examining the impact of the WEEE Directive in the UK. The interviews confirmed that reuse takes place for a limited number of product types, mostly on a small scale. Additionally, whilst legislation has prompted innovation in recycling and higher capture rates, resource recovery is in practice limited to easily salvageable materials, whilst recovery of critical raw materials is often neglected. Furthermore, there is confusion around available collection networks, particularly for small WEEE, which consistently appears in residual waste streams.The waste hierarchy remains the key component of EU waste strategy and moving to the higher levels of the waste hierarchy is an essential part of achieving sustainable waste management and moving towards a circular economy. The paper proposes a series of measures to this end: promoting recovery routes and practices that facilitate reuse of suitable products, adapting recycling technology to increase recovery of critical raw materials and targeted policies to encourage the application of the waste hierarchy within a resource efficiency-oriented framework.

Managing Supplier-Manufacturer Closed-Loop Supply Chain Considering Product Design and Take-Back Legislation.

Facing a growing amount of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), a recent recast of the WEEE directive has put a specific reuse target for manufacturers, aiming to reduce environmental pollution and incentivize a green product design. In this paper, in order to examine whether the above two goals can be achieved by setting a specific reuse target, we have modelled a closed-loop supply chain consisting of a supplier (the leader) and a manufacturer (the follower) with the constraint of a mandated remanufacturing target. In this model, the supplier determines the level of interchangeability in product design and the wholesale price of the key component. The manufacturer buys the key components from the supplier and makes production and remanufacturing decisions under the requirement of a mandated remanufacturing target. We have investigated the supply chain’s members’ optimal decisions and analyzed the impact of the mandated remanufacturing target on the optimal profits of the supply chain’s members and consumer surplus, and finally, we have explored the environmental implications of the mandated remanufacturing target. We found that the supply chain’s members’ optimal decisions are affected by the mandated remanufacturing target and the cost of the new component. In terms of the economic implications of the mandated remanufacturing target, we have demonstrated that the increase in the mandated remanufacturing target has negative effects on the profits of the supply chain’s members and consumer surplus. Regarding the goal of incentivizing green product design, we found that the mandated remanufacturing target cannot always incentivize the supplier to implement product design that is beneficial to remanufacturing. From the perspective of the environment, we further indicate that more stringent mandated remanufacturing targets may bring an undesirable environmental outcome.

Supporting mobile WEEE collection on demand: A method for multi-criteria vehicle routing, loading and cost optimisation

The task of increasing collection rates of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is an important challenge in the global economy, and especially in the European Union where stiffer collection targets set out in a new WEEE directive are to be effective by 2019. As the circular economy approach replaces the linear model, resource recycling activities become a priority in waste management policy. As new techniques and possibilities of waste collection systems emerge, opportunities are created for improving efficiency for collection companies and affording benefits for the environment.A model proposed for mobile WEEE collection in this study considers a multi-criteria approach in developing a cost efficient method for pick up on demand from residents or electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) stores. The algorithm used in this model optimises vehicle routes and helps in selecting a number of vehicles from a heterogeneous fleet, incorporating the WEEE loading problem. Using genetic algorithm and fuzzy logic, this model optimises costs and resources required to complete the WEEE collection assuring timely pick up of the waste equipment. The numerical model is verified in a case study in Opole, a city in the south of Poland. The results show that the proposed model can handle the multiple parameter optimisation problem including operational costs, efficient use of vehicles from a fleet, efficient waste loading in vehicles and residents' satisfaction with timely pick up of the waste equipment from a household. Such system can be successfully applied even for large cities. The algorithm provides an opportunity for writing software or mobile apps design to be used by WEEE collection companies.

Life-cycle energy use and GHG emissions of waste television treatment system in China

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) has become one of the fastest growing solid waste. The development of WEEE treatment facility will promote the infrastructure to realize sustainable waste management. At present, the treatment of cathode ray tube televisions (TVs) forms the dominant part of the WEEE treatment system in China. In this paper, a life cycle assessment is conducted to estimate the energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions arising from CRT TV treatment. Three treatment scenarios for CRT TV are analysed: (i) the current situation in China (Current China Scenario), (ii) one with encouragement from China’s WEEE Directive (WEEE Directive Scenario), and (iii) the development of more advanced techniques (Advanced Technique Scenario). The results show that the changes in energy use caused by the three scenarios are −526.51, −475, and −556.07MJ, respectively. Meanwhile, the relevant GHG emissions are −19.59, −20.43, and −25.82kg CO2-eq, respectively. The scenario involving encouragement from China’s WEEE Directive offers no benefit compared to the current situation in terms of energy use and GHG emissions. Moreover, the Advanced Technique Scenario is more efficient than the Current China Scenario. In consideration of the main contribution, the results reveal that CRT glass recycling contributes the highest energy use and GHG emissions to CRT TV treatment, besides, displaced plastic and displaced glass account for the main proportions with regard to any accrued environmental gain. A sensitivity analysis is also carried out to quantify the influence of collection efficiency and the lead (Pb) recovery rate on environmental performance. In so doing, some recommendations are proposed to realize the sustainable development of the WEEE treatment system in China.

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) in Denmark: Flows, quantities and management

In this study, we comprehensively map and estimate the flows of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) and the corresponding waste (WEEE) in Denmark. The quantitative analysis is supplemented with a thorough diagnosis of the WEEE management system. Dynamic material flow analysis (MFA) is used to estimate the flows for the period of 1990–2025. The estimates are based on sales data of 61 household products – equivalent to 80% (by weight) of the total household EEE – and their lifespans modelled using Weibull distribution function. Building on this, the potential resources available for recovery over time, and their corresponding revenues are evaluated. The results show that the amount of WEEE generated per year increased from 45 to 81kilo tons (kt) between 1990 and 2015. The amount of EEE put on market (PoM), on the other hand, peaked to 101kt in 2006 from 61kt in 1991, but declined to 84kt in 2015. In terms of the PoM quantity, the EEE market is found saturated, and can be expected to remain largely unchanged over the next decade. Consequently, there will not be any significant increase in WEEE quantities. Denmark has a well-established WEEE management system that has been performing adequately against the WEEE Directive. However, the new set of legislations means a need for recalibration of the performance indicators for the system. A more robust and systematic documentation of the flows will support the WEEE management system in achieving higher resource recovery.

The evolution of the Italian EPR system for the management of household Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE). Technical and economic performance in the spotlight

In this paper we analyse the Italian collective system for the management of household Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), and its evolution over time, following the European Directives on WEEE, which include the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR). The analysis focuses on the technical and economic performance of WEEE compliance organisations (consortia), as they are the key players in the Italian EPR regime. Economic results have not usually been provided in previous studies, due to the lack of available data. This study overcomes this problem by accessing the financial statements for the years 2009–2014 of all consortia. The main conclusions of the study are: The Italian EPR system barely exceeded the technical target of the first WEEE Directive (4kg per capita). Improvements are necessary to achieve the target set for 2019 by the Recast Directive. The economic performance of the Italian EPR regime improved significantly over time. The fees charged per tonne of WEEE collected decreased by almost 43% from 652 Euro per tonne in 2009 to 374 Euro per tonne in 2014, while the fees per tonne put on the market (POM) were 134 Euro in 2009 and 104 Euro in 2014. The results prove the theory which states that, competing consortia use the learning effects to reduce the contribution fees for producers rather than to increase the quantity collected. Municipalities remain the most important actor in WEEE collection operations. Consortia compensate municipalities with a reimbursement that ranges between 28 and 38 Euros per tonne collected. These repayments cover only partially their costs. Additional studies should investigate their role.

The Influence of Compatibilizer Addition and Gamma Irradiation on Mechanical and Rheological Properties of a Recycled WEEE Plastics Blend

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is growing rapidly, and the plastics within WEEE have an important role in fulfilling the recovery and recycling targets defined in the European WEEE Directive. This study considers recycling of WEEE plastics by making a blend of the different plastics instead of separating them. The mechanical and thermal properties can be enhanced by adding a compatibilizer. It was found that one compatibilizer, a styrene-b(ethylene-co-butylene)-b-styrene (SEBS) copolymer named Kraton® G1652 E, had a large impact on the ductility of the recycled WEEE plastics blend. By adding 2.5 weight % (wt%) of this copolymer, the elongation at break increased by more than five times compared with the non-compatibilized samples, with only a small decrease in stiffness and strength. The storage modulus (G’) decreased slightly with increasing compatibilizer amounts while the impact strength increased with increasing amounts of compatibilizer, from 2.1 kJ/m2 (reference material) to 3.6 kJ/m2 (5 weight % (wt%) compatibilizer). It was found that Kraton® FG1901 E (styrene-b(ethylene-co-butylene)-b-styrene (SEBS) grafted with maleic anhydride (MAH)), Royaltuf® 372P20 (styrene acrylonitrile (SAN) modified with ethylene-propylene-diene elastomers (EPDM)) and Fusabond® P353 (polypropylene (PP) with a high degree of grafted MAH) were ineffective as compatibilizers to the blend. Gamma irradiation (50 kGy) did not improve the mechanical properties however: the impact strength of the gamma-irradiated samples was lower than that of the non-irradiated samples.

Life cycle assessment of post-consumer plastics production from waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) treatment residues in a Central European plastics recycling plant

Plastics play an increasingly important role in reaching the recovery and recycling rates defined in the European WEEE Directive. In a recent study we have determined the life cycle environmental impacts of post-consumer plastics production from mixed, plastics-rich WEEE treatment residues in the Central European plant of a market-leading plastics recycler, both from the perspective of the customers delivering the residues and the customers buying the obtained post-consumer recycled plastics. The results of our life cycle assessments, which were extensively tested with sensitivity analyses, show that from both perspectives plastics recycling is clearly superior to the alternatives considered in this study (i.e. municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) and virgin plastics production). For the three ReCiPe endpoint damage categories, incineration in an MSWI plant results in an impact exceeding that of the examined plastics recycling facility each by about a factor of 4, and the production of virgin plastics has an impact exceeding that of the post-consumer recycled (PCR) plastics production each by a factor of 6–10. On a midpoint indicator level the picture is more differentiated, showing that the environmental impacts of the recycling options are lower by 50% and more for almost all impact factors. While this provides the necessary evidence for the environmental benefits of plastics recycling compared to existing alternatives, it can, however, not be taken as conclusive evidence. To be conclusive, future research will have to address the fate of hazardous substances in the outputs of such recycling systems in more detail.

Overview of the WEEE Directive and Its Implementation in the Nordic Countries: National Realisations and Best Practices

Electronic devices and mobile applications have become a part of everyday life. Fast technological progress and rapid product obsolescence have led to the rapid growth of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Due to hazardous substances and also substantial amounts of valuable materials contained in electrical and electronic equipment, the European Union has implemented Directives related to WEEE, in order to reduce negative environmental and health impacts and to improve material recovery of valuable substances from WEEE. This paper provides an overview of the WEEE Directive and its implementation to national legislations in Finland, Sweden, and Norway and, further, describes how the nationwide WEEE recovery infrastructures in the Nordic countries have been built. The Nordic WEEE management systems are evaluated from the point of resource efficiency and best practices. Evidently, the WEEE management systems as established in the Nordic countries have advantages because the WEEE collection rates in 2012 were 12 kg/inhab./year, in Finland, 16 kg/inhab./year, in Sweden, and 27 kg/ inhab./year, in Norway, despite their sparsely populated nature. The Swedish and Norwegian experiences, especially, with long history of WEEE recovery indicate that increasing consumer awareness leads to more environmentally sound behaviour and improves recovery efficiency.

A multidimensional indicator set to assess the benefits of WEEE material recycling

Abstract EU strategies for waste management have long recognized the key role of recycling to move towards sustainable consumption and production. This resulted in a range of regulatory measures, among which the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directive, which sets weight-based targets for recovery, preparation for re-use and recycling. The increasing strategic relevance of the supply of raw materials has, however, spurred a more integrated approach towards resource efficiency. In addition to the prevention of disposal, recycling practices are now also meant to contribute to sustainable materials management by pursuing (i) a higher degree of material cycle closure, (ii) an improved recovery of strategically relevant materials, and (iii) the avoidance of environmental burdens associated with the extraction and refining of primary raw materials. In response to this evolution, this paper reports about the development of an indicator set that allows to quantitatively demonstrate these recycling benefits, hence going further than the weight-based objectives employed in the WEEE directive. The indicators can be calculated for WEEE recycling processes for which information is available on both input and output fractions. It offers a comprehensive framework that aims to support decision making processes on product design, to identify opportunities for the optimization of WEEE End-of-Life scenarios, and to assess the achieved (or expected) results of implemented (or planned) recycling optimization strategies. The paper is illustrated by a case study on the recycling of LCD televisions.

Implementation of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive in Finland: Evaluation of the collection network and challenges of the effective WEEE management

Further to the European Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive, setting up efficient collection schemes is necessary to ensure the recovery targets set. Following the subsidiary principle, the WEEE Directive defines only the general requirements for mandatory collection and recycling objectives. The modalities of the logistics and the organisation of the take-back schemes are left to the choice of Member States. In this paper, the implementation of the WEEE Directive and the development of the WEEE recovery infrastructure in Finland are described and the challenges to the effective management of the WEEE recovery system in Finland are expressed. It can be said that the implementation of the WEEE Directive has succeeded in Finland and, at the same time, the legislative basis has been enacted. In addition, a functional WEEE recovery infrastructure has been built and, the collection requirements of the WEEE Directive have been exceeded in a relatively short time. However, the paper outlines that some inefficient practices still exist, particularly in the registration and WEEE collection stages. It is concluded that raising awareness would lead to a more environmentally sound behaviour and would, ultimately, improve WEEE recovery efficiency.

Business‐to‐Business Information Technology User Practices at End of Life in the United Kingdom, Germany, and France

SummaryBusiness‐to‐business (B2B) electronics account for a significant volume of the electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) put on the market. Very little B2B waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is reported as collected in the European Union (EU) in compliance with the WEEE Directive, which uses the policy principle of extended producer responsibility (EPR) to ensure that WEEE is managed correctly. This presents a barrier to parties looking for access to the waste. Company practice dictates the channels into which B2B WEEE flows following primary use. This article presents a study that engaged with company actors directly to get a better understanding of business information technology (IT) EEE asset management. Data were collected to determine the barriers current practice could present to the collection of B2B IT EEE at end of life and the implications of these for the development of policies and strategies for EPR. A questionnaire was developed and data were gathered from organizations in three EU countries—the United Kingdom, Germany, and France—stratified by size. Some notable findings were that there are several routes by which end‐of‐life B2B WEEE can flow. The recycling and refurbishment of B2B IT units at end of use was shown to be commonplace, but it is likely that these units enter streams where they are not reported. The actors disposing of their units did not have information on the management or disposition of these streams. It is concluded that to achieve the goals of EPR for B2B IT WEEE, the networks and the operational practices of these streams need to be better understood when developing strategies and policies.

Dispatches

Dispatches

High Voltage Power Supply With High Output Current and Low Power Consumption for Photomultiplier Tubes

In some applications, photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) are powered by battery based circuits, where the available energy is severely limited. The most simple approach to design high voltage power supplies (HVPS) for PMTs has considered resistive voltage dividers in order to bias the dynodes. However, this approach usually results in high power losses and, consequently, this undermines the PMT performance. In this work, the proposed solution is the use of a power circuit based on the forward converter connected to a transformer built with several secondary windings. Each secondary voltage is rectified and filtered to eliminate voltage ripple. Each dynode voltage is supplied by a rectified secondary voltage. The proposed topology provides low power consumption as well as low sensitivity of the PMT gain with respect to the dynode currents. Taking into account the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE), this HVPS has been designed to allow the recycling of old PMTs.

One WEEE, many species: lessons from the European experience

Electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) pervades modern lifestyles, but its quick obsolescence is resulting in huge quantities of EEE to be disposed of. This fast-growing waste stream has been recognized for its hazard potential. The European Union's (EU) Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive was essentially in response to the toxicity of e-waste - to ensure that it was collected and treated in an environmentally sound manner. Since then, the WEEE Directive has expanded its aims to include recovery of valuable resources as a means to reduce raw material extraction. With these objectives in mind, the Directive sets a common minimum legislative framework for all EU member states. However, the transposition of the Directive into national legislations has meant many differences in actual implementation models. There are 27 national transpositions of the Directive with different definitions, provisions and agreements. Each legislation reflects national situations, whether they are geographical considerations, legislative history, the influence of lobby groups and other national priorities. Although this diversity in legislations has meant massive problems in compliance and enforcement, it provides an opportunity to get an insight into the possible operational models of e-waste legislation. Building on the study by the United Nations University commissioned by the European Commission as part of its 2008 Review of the WEEE Directive, the paper identifies some key features of the Directive as well as legislative and operational differences in transposition and implementation in the various members states. The paper discusses the successes and challenges of the Directive and concludes with lessons learnt from the European experience.

Promoting reuse strategies for electrical/electronic equipment

Preserving the natural resources and protecting the environment has become an internationally acknowledged prerequisite for sustainable development. There have been several international initiatives, agreements and acts of cooperation, in parallel with legislation that enforces strict constraints and obligations on manufacturers for their products, based on the principles of the extended producer responsibility. This paper presents a methodological framework for integrated assessment, developed to support optimal decision-making regarding the rationalised management of electrical and electronic equipment at the end of their useful life. The resulting waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) has become a top-priority owing to its increasing volume and high value, as well as hazardous content. The proposed framework has been designed as the coordination interface between the government, producers and all relevant stakeholders. The framework targets the promotion of reuse strategies according to the European Union waste framework directive and the pending recast of the WEEE directive. In order to assist decision-making as regards end-of-life alternatives, a multicriteria-based methodological approach has been developed and described herein. An application of the introduced framework is demonstrated.