Recreational Walking Research Articles

Walk Score(TM), Perceived Neighborhood Walkability, and walking in the US.

To investigate both the Walk Score(TM) and a self-reported measure of neighborhood walkability ("Perceived Neighborhood Walkability") as estimators of transport and recreational walking among Americans. The study is based upon a survey of a nationally-representative sample of 1224 American adults. The survey gauged walking for both transport and recreation and included a self-reported measure of neighborhood walkability and each respondent's Walk Score(TM). Binary logistic and linear regression analyses were performed on the data. The Walk Score(TM) is associated with walking for transport, but not recreational walking nor total walking. Perceived Neighborhood Walkability is associated with transport, recreational and total walking. Perceived Neighborhood Walkability captures the experiential nature of walking more than the Walk Score(TM).

Walking beyond the Socioeconomic Status in an Objectively and Perceptually Walkable Pedestrian Environment

An extensive body of literature suggests that physical environment, physical activity, and socioeconomic status (SES) are intrinsically linked to each other and to weight related health problems. In this study, the role of objective and perceived pedestrian environment characteristics (microscale measures) was explored in relation to people’s recreational walking patterns in two neighborhoods with opposite SES. A total of 441 street segments were assessed and a total of 133 questionnaires were conducted. The findings suggest that recreational walking can take place beyond a neighborhood’s suggested SES when objective and especially perceived microscale characteristics (pedestrian environment) are favorable.

Do relationships between environmental attributes and recreational walking vary according to area-level socioeconomic status?

Residents of areas with lower socioeconomic status (SES) are known to be less physically active during leisure time. Neighborhood walkability has been shown to be related to recreational walking equally in low and high SES areas. This cross-sectional study tested whether associations of specific environmental attributes, measured objectively and subjectively, with walking for recreation were moderated by area-level SES. The data of the North West Adelaide Health Study collected in 2007 (n = 1500, mean age 57) were used. Self-reported walking frequency was the outcome of the study. Environmental exposure measures included objectively measured walkability components (residential density, intersection density, land use mix, and net retail area ratio) and perceived attributes (access to destinations, neighborhood esthetics, walking infrastructure, traffic/barriers, and crime safety). Participants' suburbs were categorized into low and high SES areas using an indicator of socioeconomic disadvantage. Low SES areas had lower scores in residential density, neighborhood esthetics, walking infrastructure, traffic/barriers, and crime safety. Recreational walking was associated with residential density, access to destinations, esthetics, traffic/barriers, and crime safety. Effect modification was observed for two attributes (out of nine): residential density was associated with walking only in low SES areas, while walking infrastructure was associated with walking only in high SES areas. The associations of neighborhood environmental attributes with recreational walking were largely consistent across SES groups. However, low SES areas were disadvantaged in most perceived environmental attributes related to recreational walking. Improving such attributes in low SES neighborhoods may help close socioeconomic disparities in leisure time physical activity.

Street characteristics to encourage children to walk

An experiment tested whether physical disorder affected low to moderate income African–American children’s choice of street to walk on and their parents’ choice of a street for them to walk on. The experiment used an innovative desktop simulation in which 32 fourth and fifth grade African–American children and 30 parents viewed and explored pairs of virtual walk-through streets manipulated on disorder (across three contexts and two other street and sidewalk characteristics) and picked from each pair the one to walk on (child) or for the child to walk on (parent). Each participant was asked to report the reasons for the choices. The analysis revealed that children and their parents were more likely to walk (or have the child walk) on streets lower in disorder. Reported reasons for choices confirmed the importance of physical disorder in affecting walking choices. Low-cost improvements in order may make streets more desirable for recreational walking.

Variations in Community Prevalence and Determinants of Recreational and Utilitarian Walking in Older Age.

Background. Regular walking is critical to maintaining health in older age. We examined influences of individual and community factors on walking habits in older adults. Methods. We analyzed walking habits among participants of a prospective cohort study of 745 community-dwelling men and women, mainly aged 70 years or older. We estimated community variations in utilitarian and recreational walking, and examined whether the variations were attributable to community differences in individual and environmental factors. Results. Prevalence of recreational walking was relatively uniform while prevalence of utilitarian walking varied across the 16 communities in the study area. Both types of walking were associated with individual health and physical abilities. However, utilitarian walking was also strongly associated with several measures of neighborhood socioeconomic status and access to amenities while recreational walking was not. Conclusions. Utilitarian walking is strongly influenced by neighborhood environment, but intrinsic factors may be more important for recreational walking. Communities with the highest overall walking prevalence were those with the most utilitarian walkers. Public health promotion of regular walking should take this into account.

Dogs and the city. The role of urban landscape for dog walking habits, and health benefits for people and dogs

The highest proportion of dogs, in Sweden, is found in urbanized counties. Today's sedentary lifestyle leads to worsened health conditions and higher abundance of diabetes and cardiovascular diseases among humans and dogs. While dog ownership leads to an increase in recreational walking is not clear how the urban landscape can contribute to motivation and perceived access.

Mismatch between perceived and objectively measured land use mix and street connectivity: associations with neighborhood walking.

Studies on the mismatch between objective and perceived measures of walkability and walking provide insights into targeting interventions. These studies focused on those living in more walkable environments, but perceiving them as less walkable. However, it is equally important to understand how the other mismatch (living in less walkable areas, but perceiving them as walkable) is related to walking. This study examined how the mismatch between perceived and objective walkability measures (i.e., living in less walkable areas, but perceiving them as walkable, and living in more walkable areas, but perceiving them as less walkable) was associated with walking. Baseline data from adult participants (n = 1466) of the RESIDential Environment Project (Perth, Australia in 2004-06) collected self-report neighborhood walking for recreation and transport in a usual week and participants' perceptions of street connectivity and land use mix in their neighborhood. The exposure was the mismatch between objective and perceived measures of these. Multilevel logistic regression examined associations of walking with the mismatch between perceived and objective walkability measures. Perceiving high walkable attributes as low walkable was associated with lower levels of walking, while perceiving a low walkable attribute as walkable was associated with higher levels of walking. Walking interventions must create more pedestrian-friendly environments as well as target residents' perceptions.

Reliability and validity of the transport and physical activity questionnaire (TPAQ) for assessing physical activity behaviour.

BackgroundNo current validated survey instrument allows a comprehensive assessment of both physical activity and travel behaviours for use in interdisciplinary research on walking and cycling. This study reports on the test-retest reliability and validity of physical activity measures in the transport and physical activity questionnaire (TPAQ).MethodsThe TPAQ assesses time spent in different domains of physical activity and using different modes of transport for five journey purposes. Test-retest reliability of eight physical activity summary variables was assessed using intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) and Kappa scores for continuous and categorical variables respectively. In a separate study, the validity of three survey-reported physical activity summary variables was assessed by computing Spearman correlation coefficients using accelerometer-derived reference measures. The Bland-Altman technique was used to determine the absolute validity of survey-reported time spent in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA).ResultsIn the reliability study, ICC for time spent in different domains of physical activity ranged from fair to substantial for walking for transport (ICC = 0.59), cycling for transport (ICC = 0.61), walking for recreation (ICC = 0.48), cycling for recreation (ICC = 0.35), moderate leisure-time physical activity (ICC = 0.47), vigorous leisure-time physical activity (ICC = 0.63), and total physical activity (ICC = 0.56). The proportion of participants estimated to meet physical activity guidelines showed acceptable reliability (k = 0.60). In the validity study, comparison of survey-reported and accelerometer-derived time spent in physical activity showed strong agreement for vigorous physical activity (r = 0.72, p<0.001), fair but non-significant agreement for moderate physical activity (r = 0.24, p = 0.09) and fair agreement for MVPA (r = 0.27, p = 0.05). Bland-Altman analysis showed a mean overestimation of MVPA of 87.6 min/week (p = 0.02) (95% limits of agreement −447.1 to +622.3 min/week).ConclusionThe TPAQ provides a more comprehensive assessment of physical activity and travel behaviours and may be suitable for wider use. Its physical activity summary measures have comparable reliability and validity to those of similar existing questionnaires.

Age- and Sex-Related Walking Patterns in Unrestricted Inner City Park Trail Walkers

The present study examined age- and sex-related differences in the walking patterns of recreational park walkers during unrestricted walking. Three video cameras were unnoticeably and sequentially positioned along a paved park trail. Each camera continuously filmed free walkers who consecutively passed three segments of trail: down slope (DS; 5.83o, 83.5 m long), level (LV; 0o, 10 m long), and up slope (US; 8.90o, 98.4 m long, 2.23 m width), for one hour. Cameras recorded a 9-m distance of each representative segment, which was marked by plastic tape 2 cm wide. The visual image was stored on a digital video cassette, and a video digital program (Dart Fish) was utilized for analyzing step length (SL) and walking speed (WS). Only adults and clear images were included for analysis. The sex was identified and the age span was categorized visually into three groups (20 ? 39 years, young; 40 ? 59 years, middle; and ≥ 60 years, old age) by a technician. All recordings were conducted on a clear spring day. A total of 56 men and 121 women passed through all the trail segments analyzed. For men, the average SL was 81.3 ± 9.6, 82.3 ± 7.6, and 80.2 ± 8.8 cm, and the average WS was 1.42 ± 0.20, 1.40 ± 0.18, and 1.29 ± 0.19 m/sec on the DS, LV, and US trail segments, respectively, and was not different between age groups and the segments. For women, both SL (70.2 ± 5.2, 71.7 ± 3.7, and 68.6 ± 8.7 cm) and WS (1.23 ± 0.07, 1.22 ± 0.11, and 1.07 ± 0.18 m/s on the DS, LV, and US trail segments) of the old age group were significantly less than those of the other two age groups as well as that of aged men in corresponding trail segments (p < 0.05). No differences were observed in WS on all the trail segments between men and women. Based on the results, walking patterns of older women were distinctive compared to the youngers and the older men indicating age- and sexrelated differences of free walking in terrestrial environment.

English

Sidewalks play an important role in transportation, as they provide a safe path for people to walk along that is separated from the motorized traffic. In suburban areas, sidewalk helps to provide equal access to people who cannot drive, notably children, the elderly and the economically disadvantaged. Sidewalks also play an important role in accommodating people that, while perfectly able to drive, may choose not to depending on the length and type of trip they are undertaking - such as a walk to a local shop, a walk for recreation or physical exercise, or taking a pet (such as a dog) for a walk. High densities, mixed land use patterns, short trip distances and high share of walk are major characteristics of Indian cities. But, many of Indian towns and cities are not friendly to the pedestrian movements. The safety of pedestrians has been seriously affected by the rapid growth of vehicular traffic and inadequate pedestrian network especially in the Central Business Districts. The pedestrians are further affected by the urban air pollution and noise pollution. Pedestrians are expected to walk on the sidewalk constructed on the side of the carriageway. Most of the times, these sidewalks are encroached by road-side development or occupied by vendors and hawkers. In case sidewalks are available, then a buffer area is provided for the pedestrians but those buffers are either occupied by parked vehicles or encroached by other users. As a result pedestrians are forced to walk on the carriageway. Not many comprehensive studies on pedestrian sidewalk facilities and assessment of their safety and quality have been taken up especially in the mid sized cities in the country. Absence of sidewalk wherever necessary, deteriorated conditions of footpath, encroachments of footpath, presence of footpath wherever pedestrian movement is negligible are some of the problems to be studied. As pedestrians are the most vulnerable among road accident victims, the study aims to highlight the need for providing better sidewalk facilities for pedestrians to save them from road accidents.

Utilitarian Walking, Neighborhood Environment, and Risk of Outdoor Falls Among Older Adults

We examined the roles of utilitarian and recreational walking in relation to occurrence of outdoor falls in older adults. We analyzed data on walking habits, falls, and fall injuries among participants of MOBILIZE Boston, a prospective cohort study of 765 community-dwelling women and men, mainly aged 70 years or older, in Boston, Massachusetts. Neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) indicators were assessed at census block group level. Falls were recorded during a total of 2066.5 person-years of follow-up (September 2005-December 2009), and the median length of follow-up was 2.9 years (range = 0.04-4.3). . Lower neighborhood SES indicators were associated with more utilitarian walking and higher rates of falls on sidewalks, streets, and curbs. Falls on sidewalks and streets were more likely to result in an injury than were falls in recreational areas. Utilitarian-only walkers tended to live in neighborhoods with the lowest neighborhood SES and had the highest rate of outdoor falls despite walking 14 and 25 fewer blocks per week than the recreational-only and dual walkers, respectively. . Improving the safety of walking environments in areas where older adults shop and do other errands of necessity is an important component of fall prevention.

Ross Island recreational walking tracks: relationships between soil physiochemical properties and track usage

ABSTRACTThe objective of this research was to determine the number of people using the Ross Island recreational walking tracks, and to examine the relationships between the number of users, track morphological characteristics, and soil physiochemical properties. Infrared track counters provided 2-years of data on five walking tracks on the island. Track width and track incision were measured and soil sampling in the vicinity of the track counter and an adjacent control site was undertaken. Between January 2009 and January 2011 5084 passes were recorded on the Scott Base to McMurdo Station walking track, 2842 on the Wind Vane Hill walking track, 3561 on the Round Observation Hill walking track, 10936 on the Up Observation Hill track, and 693 on the Crater Hill summit walking track. There were more users on all tracks in the 2010–2011 summer season than the 2009–2010 summer season. The highest frequency of visitors occurred on Sundays during the summer (November to January). There was no relationship between the number of passes on the track and the measured impact indicators. This indicates that higher usage of a formed track had little cumulative impact. Track width and incision were related to the slope of the terrain, with tracks traversing flatter areas generally wider (R2 = 0.85) and less incised (R2 = 0.96), than those traversing steeper hillsides. There were no significant differences between tracks and control samples in soil pH, soil EC, organic C, total N, and total P. However, soil bulk density was higher in the walking tracks than adjacent control areas (p &lt; 0.05).

Meso- or micro-scale? Environmental factors influencing pedestrian satisfaction

Despite interest in walking and its environmental, health, and social benefits, little research has investigated pedestrian satisfaction, and its potential influence on walking decisions. The present study examines the relationships between pedestrian satisfaction, and a variety of built environment factors, in order to gain insight into urban design strategies that can improve pedestrian satisfaction. We analyzed a pedestrian survey, carried out in Seoul, Korea, which includes questions about personal characteristics, micro-scale environmental attributes, and the level of pedestrian satisfaction, together with Seoul GIS data, which provided meso-scale environmental variables. The multilevel models estimated the effects of environmental factors on the level of satisfaction of utilitarian and recreational walkers. The analysis identified significant effects of both meso-scale (e.g. density, intersection density, hilliness, and the presence of bus stops), and micro-scale (e.g. sidewalk width, and the presence of bus dedicated lanes, crossings, lamps, and trees) variables on pedestrian satisfaction. The results calls on researchers to investigate a comprehensive set of psychological and environmental factors, in order to understand the various aspects of pedestrian satisfaction, and the diverse motivations behind it, as well as on planners, to adopt diverse design approaches that will produce more satisfactory pedestrian environments.

Perceived neighbourhood environmental attributes associated with adults׳ recreational walking: IPEN Adult study in 12 countries

This study examined the strength and shape of associations between perceived environmental attributes and adults’ recreational walking, using data collected from 13,745 adult participants in 12 countries. Perceived residential density, land use mix, street connectivity, aesthetics, safety from crime, and proximity to parks were linearly associated with recreational walking, while curvilinear associations were found for residential density, land use mix, and aesthetics. The observed associations were consistent across countries, except for aesthetics. Using data collected from environmentally diverse countries, this study confirmed findings from prior single-country studies. Present findings suggest that similar environmental attributes are associated with recreational walking internationally.

A methodology for prioritising management tasks for an extensive recreational walking track system

Land management requires the setting of priorities so that limited resources can be allocated to maximum effect. Priorities inevitably have a subjective component, which can be minimised by using systematic and transparent methodologies to derive them. A method for priority setting introduces several potential advantages to a management process, in particular a sound basis for justifying priorities to managers and stakeholders alike. This paper describes a methodology that was developed for prioritising management tasks across a 1700km recreational walking track system in Tasmania, Australia. Priorities were calculated numerically within a framework of seven components, based on assessments of factors such as environmental impacts, visitor safety and conformity to Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) standards. The methodology yielded logical results, was easy to use and was readily accepted by management staff. With suitable modifications it could be adapted for use in other land management applications and in other regions and environments.

An In-depth Pilot Study on Patterns, Destinations, and Purposes of Walking in Hong Kong Older Adults

Walking is a suitable activity for older adults and has physical and mental health benefits. To devise interventions that impact levels of walking it is necessary to first understand the purposes for which people walk and the destinations to which they walk. Using a 7-day diary and accelerometry, this study investigated destinations and purposes of walking in older adult residents of an ultra-dense Asian city. Participants reported an average of 17.1 walking trips per week and total weekly accelerometer/diary determined trip walking time averaged 735 min per week; much higher than reported for older adults in non-Asian settings. The most common destinations were within the neighborhood: parks and streets for recreation walking and shops and eating places for transport-related walking. Errands and eating were the most common purposes for transportation trips. The study results can help inform urban design to encourage walking.

The Association between Walking and Perceived Environment in Chinese Community Residents: A Cross-Sectional Study

BackgroundThe neighborhood environment, as a determinant of walking, has been assessed in several developed countries. However, few studies have investigated these associations in Chinese populations.ObjectiveTo examine the association between the perceived neighborhood environment and walking for recreation or transportation purposes among Chinese community residents.MethodsWe used a multi-stage stratified random sampling design to conduct a cross-sectional study of 1528 Chinese adults in Shanghai. Environmental and walking variables were assessed using a revised Abbreviated Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale for Chinese subjects and a long version of International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Self-reported demographic variables including gender, age, employment status, and location of community were also collected. Multiple logistic regression analysis was applied to examine the association between the neighborhood environment and walking.ResultsBased on the results of IPAQ, 13.7% of the overall subjects were physical inactive, which was considered to be lowly active. For all participants, accessibility to services was significantly associated with walking for both recreation and transportation (odds ratio = 1.062, 95% confidence interval: 1.016, 1.110; odds ratio = 1.053; 95% confidence interval: 1.008, 1.100, respectively). In males, accessibility to services was significantly associated both with walking for recreation and walking for transportation. However, a significantly negative association was found between the neighborhood surroundings and walking for recreation. In contrast, females who perceived good traffic safety tended to walk for recreation. Data also revealed a difference between working and retired individuals. Among working participants, perceived environmental variables were not significantly associated with walking for recreation and transportation.ConclusionsThe association between neighborhood environment and walking varied depending on the reason for walking and the characteristics of the participants. Our findings suggest that interventions to promote walking in community residents should include improving the neighborhood environment, particularly accessibility to services such as building more stores, parks, and public transit facilities.

Do changes in residents' fear of crime impact their walking? Longitudinal results from RESIDE

ObjectiveTo examine the influence of fear of crime on walking for participants in a longitudinal study of residents in new suburbs. MethodsParticipants (n=485) in Perth, Australia, completed a questionnaire about three years after moving to their neighbourhood (2007–2008), and again four years later (2011–2012). Measures included fear of crime, neighbourhood perceptions and walking (min/week). Objective environmental measures were generated for each participant's neighbourhood, defined as the 1600m road network distance from home, at each time-point. Linear regression models examined the impact of changes in fear of crime on changes in walking, with progressive adjustment for other changes in the built environment, neighbourhood perceptions and demographics. ResultsAn increase in fear of crime was associated with a decrease in residents' walking inside the local neighbourhood. For each increase in fear of crime (i.e., one level on a five-point Likert scale) total walking decreased by 22min/week (p=0.002), recreational walking by 13min/week (p=0.031) and transport walking by 7min/week (p=0.064). ConclusionThis study provides longitudinal evidence that changes in residents' fear of crime influence their walking behaviours. Interventions that reduce fear of crime are likely to increase walking and produce public health gains.

Does walking explain associations between access to greenspace and lower mortality?

Despite emerging evidence that access to greenspace is associated with longer life expectancy, little is understood about what causal mechanisms may explain this relationship. Based on social-ecological theories of health, greenspace has multifaceted potential to influence mortality but the potential alternative mediating pathways have not been empirically tested. This study evaluates relationships between access to greenspace, walking and mortality. Firstly, we test for an association between access to greenspace and self-reported levels of walking using a survey of 165,424 adults across England collected during 2007 and 2008. Negative binomial regression multilevel models were used to examine associations between greenspace access and self reported number of days walked in the last month, in total and for recreational and health purposes, after controlling for relevant confounders. Secondly we use an area level analysis of 6781 middle super output areas across England to examine if recreational walking mediates relationships between greenspace access and reduced premature mortality from circulatory disease. Results show clear evidence of better greenspace access being associated with higher reported recreational walking. There were between 13% and 18% more days of recreational walking in the greenest quintile compared with the least green after adjustment for confounders. Tests for mediation found no evidence that recreational walking explain the associations between greenspace and mortality. Futhermore, whilst the relationship between greenspace access and walking was observed for all areas, the relationship between greenspace access and reduced mortality was only apparent in the most deprived areas. These findings indicate that the association between greenspace and mortality, if causal, may be explained by mediators other than walking, such as psychosocial factors. Future research should concentrate on understanding the causal mechanisms underlying observed associations.

Public open spaces and walking for recreation: Moderation by attributes of pedestrian environments

ObjectiveThis study examined whether attributes of pedestrian environments moderate the relationships between access to public open spaces (POS) and adults' recreational walking. MethodsData were collected from participants of the North West Adelaide Health Study in 2007. Recreational walking was determined using self-reported walking frequency. Measures of POS access (presence, count, and distance to the nearest POS) were assessed using a Geographic Information System. Pedestrian environmental attributes included aesthetics, walking infrastructure, barrier/traffic, crime concern, intersection density, and access to walking trails. Regression analyses examined whether associations between POS access and recreational walking were moderated by pedestrian environmental attributes. ResultsThe sample included 1574 participants (45% men, mean age: 55). POS access measures were not associated with recreational walking. However, aesthetics, walking infrastructure, and access to walking trail were found to moderate the POS-walking relationships. The presence of POS was associated with walking among participants with aesthetically pleasing pedestrian environments. Counter-intuitively, better access to POS was associated with recreational walking for those with poorer walking infrastructure or no access to walking trails. ConclusionLocal pedestrian environments moderate the relationships between access to POS and recreational walking. Our findings suggest the presence of complex relationships between POS availability and pedestrian environments.