Essential Oil Yield Research Articles

Diversity analysis and evaluation of lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) accessions for morphological, oil yield and oil composition traits under different fertility levels for Uttarakhand region

Lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) is a highly valuable aromatic and therapeutic herb, well known for its essential oil content. The present study was carried out during 2021–2023 at Centre for Aromatic Plants, Selaqui, Dehradun, Uttarakhand to analyse the diversity of various lemongrass accessions collected from Uttarakhand for their morphological traits, oil yield, and oil composition traits. These various lemongrass accessions were further evaluated in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications under different fertility levels for their agro- morphological performance. Yield components such as herb yield and essential oil yield, including oil composition, were also determined. Statistical analysis and genetic parameters indicated significant variations among lemongrass accessions for the majority of morphological and yield traits. Accessions AC-16 and AC-37 performed superiorly for traits such as plant height, leaf length, and width, whereas accessions AC-51 and AC-37 showed higher herb and oil yields under an increased dose of fertilizer. The accessions showed wide variability with respect to oil composition; from our study, we identified each of the three citral-rich (AC-16, AC-37, and AC-51) and geraniol-rich (AC-20, AC- 71, and AC-65) accessions. The better-performing accessions for morphological, yield and oil composition related traits may also be used in breeding programmes as potential genetic stock.

Application of Fe2O3 nanoparticles improves the growth, antioxidant power, flavonoid content, and essential oil yield and composition of Dracocephalum kotschyi Boiss.

Dracocephalum kotschyi Boiss., an endemic and endangered medicinal and aromatic plant in Iran, showcases distinct botanical characteristics and therapeutic promise. According to the IUCN grouping criteria, this plant is facing challenges due to overcollection from its natural habitats. To address this issue, there is an increasing inclination towards cultivating this species within agricultural systems. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of applying Fe2O3 nanoparticles (NPs) at varying concentrations (50, 100, and 200 mg L-1), as well as bulk Fe2O3 at the same concentrations, on the growth, essential oil production, antioxidant capacity, total phenol, and flavonoid content of D. kotschyi. The foliar application of 100 and/or 200 mg L-1 of Fe2O3 NPs resulted in the greatest leaf length and dry weight, while Fe2O3 NPs at the level of 100 mg L-1 led to the highest leaf/stem ratio. Additionally, spraying 200 mg L-1 of Fe2O3 NPs and all concentrations of bulk Fe2O3 positively impacted chlorophyll and carotenoid levels. Both nano and bulk Fe2O3 supplements stimulated H2O2 production and subsequently enhanced enzymatic antioxidant activity. The use of 50 mg L-1 of Fe2O3 NPs resulted in the highest flavonoid content and non-enzymatic antioxidant activity. Meanwhile, the highest essential oil content and yield was achieved by the application of 50 and/or 100 mg L-1 Fe2O3 NPs. The addition of low concentration of Fe2O3 NPs (50 mg L-1) resulted in a significant increase in the concentration of geranial, while a higher supply of Fe2O3 NPs (200 mg L-1) significantly decreased the percentage of neral in the essential oil. Overall, the application of Fe2O3 NPs demonstrated significant potential for increased biomass, enhanced yield, essential oil production, and phytochemical attributes. The findings highlight the versatility of Fe2O3 NPs at optimal concentrations, acting as both a nano-fertilizer and a nano-inducer, promoting the production and accumulation of valuable secondary metabolites in plants.

Artificial neural network models for forecasting the extracted yield of essential oils from Curcuma longa L. by hydro-distillation

Abstract Turmeric is commonly acknowledged in traditional medical practices for its strong healing properties. In the present work, hydro-distillation was employed to extract essential oils from turmeric powder. The response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to investigate the effects of various parameters, including evaporation rate (0.23, 0.5, 0.8, 0.97, 1.36, 2 ml/min), solid/liquid ratio (4:100, 6:100, 8:100, 1:10, 11:100 g/ml), and extraction duration (13–250 min) on the yield of essential oils. The central composite design (CCD) proved to be an effective tool for evaluating the extraction yield of essential oils. A three-layer artificial neural network (ANN) was utilized to develop the extraction model, employing the Levenberg–Marquardt (LM) optimization algorithm. The neural network’s input layer comprised the solid/liquid ratio, evaporation rate, and extraction time, while the output layer indicated the yield of essential oil extraction. The most appropriate model included a hidden layer with 16 neurons, achieving R 2 and MSE values of 0.9989 and 0.0013, respectively. This investigation indicates that an artificial neural network prediction model serves as an effective method for estimating essential oil yield.

Effect of Kappaphyscus alvarezii seaweed liquid extract on growth, yield and chemical constituents of Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens l’ Herit. ex Aiton)

The application of seaweed-based fertilizers is an important renewable resource and gaining considerable attention in the present scenario of agriculture and horticulture as organic nutrient input and growth promoters. The present study was conducted to examine the effect of seaweed liquid extract on growth, yield, and chemical constituents of the important aromatic plant geranium. The experiments were conducted in the CSIR-CIMAP, Research Center, Bengaluru (Karnataka, India) during the Rabi season of 2018–2019 and 2019–2020. The results of pooled data over two years revealed that application of Kappaphycus alvarezii seaweed liquid extract (KSWE) along with RDF at a concentration of 15% significantly improved the plant height (71.37 ± 0.69 cm), plant canopy (68.24 ± 1.60 cm), herb yield (42.71 ± 2.45 t ha−1year−1) and oil recovery (0.36 ± 0.02%) as compared over RDF. An account of 23.14% and 23.87% increase in herbage and essential oil yield was recorded over RDF. The functional relationship between herb and oil yield of geranium with different concentrations of seaweed extract applied at different crop stages was strongly correlated (r 2=0.97 and r 2=0.91, respectively). The chemical profile of essential oil reveals that higher amounts of linalool (7.5%) isomenthone (6.65%), geranial (1.29%), geranyl formate (3.81%), and the highest citronellol to geraniol (C:G ratio) ratio of 2.14 was noticed in the treatment which receives 15% KSWE along with RDF. The study clearly exhibits the notable benefits in the performance of geranium with the application of 15% of aqueous seaweed extract from Kappaphyscus alvarezii both in quantitative and qualitative terms.

Seaweed extract and fulvic acid application affect the biomass performance, the essential oil yield and composition of Sicilian oregano grown in an organic agricultural system

Origanum vulgare ssp. hirtum is one of the taxa used as ‘oregano’ and is medicinal and aromatic plant (MAP) utilized worldwide in various sectors. Nowadays, agricultural systems are moving towards sustainable, organic, and environmentally friendly agricultural production and biostimulants have been used in recent years as a potential strategy. The objective of this research was to investigate the influence of seaweed extract based on Aschophyllum nodosum (AN) and fulvic acid (FA), applied with two different doses, on morphological parameters, fresh and dry yield, essential oil (EO) traits, total phenolic content (TPC), antioxidant activity (AA) and rosmarinic acid content (RAC) of organic oregano. Two-year experiment was conducted using a randomized complete block design with one main factor (foliar biostimulant) and 3 replicates. In AN- and FA-treated plants, increases in fresh biomass between 0.3 and 8.4 t ha−1 and in dry biomass between 0.5 and 3.0 t ha−1 were observed. The application of the lowest doses of fulvic acid (FA4) produced the highest EO contents (3.49 % and 3.46 %) and EO yields (73.3 and 97.4 kg ha−1) in both years. The application of the lowest doses of FA produced an increase (on average 4 %) in thymol content. Biostimulant application generated contrasting response, and, in some cases, a reduction in some chemical parameters compared with control plants. The findings of this study contribute to add novelty in cultivation of oregano. The application of low doses of AN and FA allows to increase yields and improve some qualities of the secondary metabolites from organic oregano.

Biostimulant application and green basil biomass production

The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of the use of the biostimulant Stimulate® on the biomass production of green basil. A randomized block design was used, in a 5x2 factorial scheme with six replications, analyzing different concentrations (0, 5, 10, 15 and 20 mL L-1 of water) and application method (single application and split into 2 times). Harvesting was performed 60 days after transplanting. The variables evaluated were plant height, counting of the number of secondary and tertiary shoots, root length and volume, fresh and dry matter mass, leaf area and essential oil yield. There was no interaction between the concentrations of Stimulate® and the application method. However, there was an increase in all variables analyzed with the concentration of 20 mL per L of water. The application of the biostimulant Stimulate® had an effect on biomass production, plant height, canopy diameter, secondary and tertiary shoots, length and volume of the root system, fresh matter mass of the aerial part and root. Increases in these variables were also observed in response to increased concentrations of Stimulate® and accumulation of green basil essential oil.

Foliar-applied silicon and zinc nanoparticles improve plant growth, biochemical attributes, and essential oil profile of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) under different irrigation regimes.

The comparative efficacy of silicon (Si) and zinc (Zn) nanoparticles (NPs) in mitigating drought stress in fennel (Foeniculum vulgare ) remains largely unexplored. This study evaluated the impact of Si NPs and Zn NPs on enhancing plant growth and physiological-biochemical attributes of fennel under varying irrigation regimes. The 2-year study was a split-pot design with irrigation at three irrigation levels (100, 75, and 50% field capacity, FC) and five treatments of foliar application of Si and Zn NPs (control, 1mM Si NP, 2mM Si NP, 1mM Zn NP, 2mM Zn NP). Results showed that drought stress reduced plant performance. Increases in superoxide dismutase (SOD, 131%) and catalase (CAT, 276%) were seen after a 50% FC drought without the use of Si and Zn NPs. Conversely, biological yield (34%), seed yield (44%), chlorophyll a +b (26%), relative water content (RWC, 21%), and essential oil (EO) yield (50%) were all reduced. However, application of Zn and Si, particularly 1mM Si and 2mM Zn, greatly mitigated drought stress via lowering CAT and SOD activity and enhancing plant yield, chlorophyll content, RWC, and EO. The composition of the EO consisted primarily of anethole, followed by limonene, fenchone, and estragole. During drought conditions, monoterpene hydrocarbons increased while oxygenated monoterpenes decreased. The opposite trend was observed for Si and Zn NPs. Our results suggest that applying Zn NPs at 2mM followed by Si NPs at 1mM improved plant resilience and EO yield in fennel plants under water stress.

Effect of Arginine and GA3 on Some Qualitative Traits and Active Ingredients of Matricaria chomomilla L.

The experiment was carried out in the one fields of Saba Abcar area - north of Baghdad duringwinter season of 2022-2023 to study the effect of arginine and gibberellin acid on the somequalitative traits and active ingredients of chamomile plant. The experiment was designedaccording to randomized complete block design at three replications, the first factor includedthe spraying of three concentrations of arginine (0, 50 and 150 mg L-1), whereas the secondfactor included the spraying of three concentrations of GA3 (0, 100 and 200 mg L-1). The resultsshowed that the spraying of arginine at a 50 mg L-1 was significantly superiority in thechlorophyll index (26.63 SPAD), carbohydrates percentage (50.38%) and volatile oil yield(13.84 Kg ha-1), while the spraying of arginine at a 150 mg L-1 was significantly superiority inthe protein percentage (10.18%). Also, the results revealed that the spraying of GA3 at 100 mgL-1 was significantly superiority in the chlorophyll index (24.90 SPAD), carbohydratespercentage (50.79%) and volatile oil yield (16.30 Kg ha-1), whereas the spraying of arginine ata 200 mg L-1 was significantly superiority in the protein percentage (9.83%). The interactionbetween studied factors had significant effect on the all studied traits. Further, the results ofHPLC analysis showed a difference in the percentages of the active ingredients of chamomilevolatile oil.

Basal Area, Soil, and Elevation Factors Affecting The Essential Oils Yield, Geranyl Acetate, and D-Limonene of Zanthoxylum acanthopodium

Andaliman (Z. acanthopodium) is an aromatic Non-Timber Forest Product (NTFP) plant species that contains essential oils (EOs), which have various benefits for cuisine, medicine, and cosmetics. This study is essential because it is not yet known what biotic factors (basal area) and abiotic factors (soil and elevation) influence the EOs yield, geranyl acetate, and D-limonene as skin anti-aging. This study investigated whether the basal area, soil, and elevation factors influence the EOs yield, geranyl acetate, and D-limonene content of Andaliman fruit. The biotic and abiotic factors were measured from 9 sample plots representing the Andaliman habitats in North Sumatra, Indonesia. A vegetation analysis was conducted to derive the Andaliman basal area of each sample plot. Soil samples were taken randomly in each plot and analyzed for their physicochemical (pH, C, SOM, N, CNR, P, K, Ca, Mg, CEC, BS, SA, DU, CL, WC, and BD) contents. Elevation gradients were measured on each plot. The EOs of Andaliman fruit include yield, geranyl acetate, and D-limonene as skin anti-aging. The data were analyzed using Partial Least Square Regression for Generalized Linear Models (PlsRglm) to determine which biotic and abiotic factors influenced the EOs yield, geranyl acetate, and D-limonene. This study confirmed that clay soil texture was the main factor influencing EOs of Andaliman fruit yield, geranyl acetate, and D-limonene. Apart from soil factors, basal area, and elevation factors were also essential to consider when cultivating Andaliman fruit as a source of skin anti-aging substances. HIGHLIGHTS To the best of the authors’s knowledge, the first study in Indonesia 2024 that integrated biotic and abiotic factors affecting the essential oils (EOs) yield, geranyl acetate and D-limonene contents derived from of acanthopodium fruit as skin anti-aging substance. Using Partial Least Square Regression for Generalized Linear Models (PlsRglm) method for analyzing basal area, soil factors and elevation that influence the EOs of acanthopodium fruit. Of all the abiotic and biotic factors studied, Clay soil texture is the most critical factor that influences acanthopodium fruit EOs as skin anti-aging substances. Basal area and elevation are also essential factors in the cultivation of aromatic Andaliman plants. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

The Effect of Harvest Time of Sapu-Sapu Leaves (Baeckea frutescens L.) the Yield, Characteristics and Composition of Essential Oils Extached Using Steam-Hydro Distillation Method

The sapu-sapu plant (Baeckea frutescens L.) is widespread in the Bangka Belitung Islands Province, thriving in sandy areas such as beaches and highlands with less fertile soil. This study aimed to determine the optimal harvest time for sapu-sapu leaves to obtain essential oils' highest yield and most desirable characteristics. The research focused on the duck-type sapu-sapu leaves, using five variations of harvest time (coded as A1, A2, A3, A4, and A5, representing leaves harvested at 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 months of growth, respectively). Essential oil extraction was performed using the steam distillation method. The resulting oils were then analyzed using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) to determine their chemical composition. The results showed that sample A1 (1-month growth) produced the highest essential oil yield at 0.74% (w/w). This sample also exhibited the most optimal essential oil characteristics: clear yellow color, characteristic sapu-sapu odor, warm bitter taste, solubility in 96% ethanol at 1:13, specific gravity of 0.8863 g/mL, optical rotation of (+) 10.28°, and refractive index of 1.474. GC-MS analysis revealed that the main compounds in the A1 sample were α-pinene (43.84%), β-pinene (13.56%), and 1,8-cineol (24.26%). The study concluded that while the variation in harvest time of sapu-sapu leaves did not significantly affect the yield, characteristics, or composition of the essential oils, there were slight differences in yield and color. Sample A1, representing the youngest leaves, produced the most optimal results.

Morphological traits, yield, antioxidant activity and essential oil composition of oregano as affected by biostimulant foliar applications

Biostimulants are interesting products which can promote the plant growth and improve its qualitative traits. In this research, the effects of foliar applications of four biostimulants on oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) crop have been investigated by evaluating morphological parameters, fresh and dry yield, antioxidant activity, total phenolic content, and chemical composition of essential oil. The highest plant height (78 cm), inflorescence height (22.2 cm), inflorescences+leaves dry yield (0.5 t ha−1), dry matter yield (38.3 %) and essential oil yield (3.4 %) were obtained in plants treated with biostimulant BlueN®, composted of Methylobacterium symbioticum SB23. Plants treated with Acadian MPE®, containing vitamins, amino acids and proteins, and betaines, showed the highest total phenolic content (60.3 GAE mg mL−1). The combination of 21 traits with principal component analysis (PCA) allowed to discriminate the biostimulant Biostimol Plus plus Peptamin-V Plus®, based on Ascophyllum nodosum extract and other elements as nitrogen, carbon, manganese, zinc and iron chelates, in a correlated way with p-cymene, α-thujene, α-terpinene, β-myrcene contents, showing values significantly higher. The heat-map identified two main clusters where the treatments with biostimulants were clearly separated from the control. Biostimulant treatments influenced the chemical composition of essential oil by increasing the number of components, monoterpene hydrocarbons and sesquiterpene hydrocarbons contents. Therefore, biostimulants can play an important role with a view to sustainable oregano cultivation by representing a safe source of nitrogen and especially for organic farming.

Comparative Analysis of Volatile Compounds and Biochemical Activity of Curcuma xanthorrhiza Roxb. Essential Oil Extracted from Distinct Shaded Plants.

The application of shade during plants' growth significantly alters the biochemical compounds of the essential oil (EO). We aimed to analyze the effect of shade on the volatile compounds and biochemical activities of EO extracted from Curcuma xanthorrhiza Roxb. (C. xanthorrhiza) plants. Four shading conditions were applied: no shading (S0), 25% (S25), 50% (S50), and 75% shade (S75). The volatile compounds of EO extracted from each shaded plant were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The antioxidant, antibacterial, and antiproliferative activities of EO were also investigated. We found that shade application significantly reduced the C. xanthorrhiza EO yield but increased its aroma and bioactive compound concentration. α-curcumene, xanthorrhizol, α-cedrene, epicurzerenone, and germacrone were found in EO extracted from all conditions. However, β-bisabolol, curzerene, curcuphenol, and γ-himachalene were only detected in the EO of S75 plants. The EO of the shaded plants also showed higher antioxidant activity as compared to unshaded ones. In addition, the EO extracted from S75 exerted higher antiproliferative activity on HeLa cells as compared to S0. The EO extracted from S0 and S25 showed higher antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria than kanamycin. Our results suggest that shade applications alter the composition of the extractable volatile compounds in C. xanthorrhiza, which may result in beneficial changes in the biochemical activity of the EO.

Chemodiversity of Zingiber officinale Roscoe rhizome essential oil at different drying times

Ginger (Zingiber officinale), a globally distributed plant, is widely used in the industry for its flavourings, seasonings, and beverages. However, maintaining its quality and volatile components during processing has posed a challenge. This study, therefore, aimed to assess the impact of drying time (24, 48, and 72h) in a circulation oven at 40 °C on the chemical composition and yield of fresh and dried ginger. The essential oils were extracted using the hydrodistillation method, and their chemical analysis was conducted using gas chromatography. The drying time in the oven directly influenced the essential oil yield, with a longer time resulting in a higher yield. We identified 27 compounds in the essential oils, varying their predominance depending on the drying time. The PCA analysis revealed that the drying time can lead to the formation of different chemotypes for ginger, indicating that altering the drying time can yield significantly different chemical profiles.

The effect of chemical fertilizers on the quantitative and qualitative yield of oregano (Origanum vulgare L) plant

This experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of NPK fertilizer on marjoram plant for two years (2017 and 2018). Various levels of nitrogen (0, 50 and 100 kg/ha), potash (0, 40 and 80 kg/ha), and phosphorus (0 and 30 kg/ha) fertilizers were applied. The results revealed that the use of NPK fertilizers significantly increased the dry weight of the aerial parts (leaves, inflorescences, and whole aerial parts) of the marjoram plant. In the first year, the dry weight of the whole shoot increased by 82 to 124 g/m2, and in the second year, it increased by 82 to 129 g/m2. Moreover, regarding essential oil concentration, this parameter in inflorescence ranged from 2.38% to 3.66% in the first year, while in the second year, it ranged from 3.02% to 4.14%. Notably, the inflorescence had a higher essential oil concentration compared to the leaves. The study also found that the use of NPK fertilizer at a ratio of 100:20:40 kg/ha resulted in the highest percentage of essential oil in the aerial. Conversely, the control treatment led to a decrease in essential oil yield. Among the essential oil compounds, Carvacrol and p-Cymene were the predominant components, with concentrations ranging from 49.36% to 60.32% and 2.03% to 4.56%, respectively, in various marjoram plant organs.

Effect of cultivation and geographical location on chemical composition and enantiomeric distribution in linalool-rich Origanum dubium Boiss. essential oils obtained at different growth stages

ABSTRACT The current study is objected to investigate the essential oil yields, chemical compositions, and enantiomeric distribution of wild and cultivated linalool rich Origanum dubium Boiss. essential oils obtained at pre-flowering, initial flowering, and post-flowering growth stages. Wild plant materials are collected from Mediterranean region of Turkey. Samples were also cultivated in Mediterranean and Aegean coastlines of Turkey in the experimental fields of Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry of Turkey. O. dubium samples yielded between 6.7 and 9.7% (mL/100 g) of essential oils. The compositions were dominated by oxygenated monoterpenes (98.2–98.9%). Linalool was detected as the major compound in all essential oils (97.0–97.6%). The dominant enantiomer was discovered as (R)-(-)-linalool with a 99.3–99.4% enantiomeric purity. The essential oil yields, chemical compositions and enantiomeric distributions were found to be constant regardless of cultivation, geographical locations or different growth stages. The result of this manuscript indicates that by culturing linalool chemotype of O. dubium, the industrial need for (R)-(-)-linalool could be met at more affordable costs.

Genetic diversity, essential oil's chemical constituents of aromatic plant Mesosphaerum suaveolens (L.) Kuntze Syn. Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. and its uses in crop protection: a review.

This review provides evidence on the genetic diversity, chemical constituents, and ecotoxicology of Mesosphaerum suaveolens ' essential oil. It emphasizes the agricultural benefits such as crop protection effectiveness of the plant and highlights the existing knowledge gaps and research perspectives to promote its utilization in agriculture. A systematic and extensive review of the literature was done and all pertinent full-text articles and abstracts were analyzed and incorporated into the review. Mesosphaerum suaveolens is used traditionally in pharmacology to treat several diseases such as malaria, constipation, stomach problems, and renal inflammation. It also treats cramps, digestive infections, headaches, and skin infections. To date, very few studies have been conducted worldwide about its genetic diversity. These studies highlighted three morphological variants, the blue-flowering, the white-flowering, and the light-purple flowering M. suaveolens. Its wide biological actions may be attributed to the numerous groups of chemical constituents in its essential oil including monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and diterpenes. Biological studies highlighted evidence of M. suaveolens being used as an antifungal, bactericidal, antimicrobial, insecticidal, and repellent plant. The essential oil extracted from M. suaveolens showed significant potential for the control of agricultural pests such as Sitiophilus zeamais, Helicoverpa armigera and Helminthosporium oryzae. M. suaveolens is commonly used worldwide as a pesticidal plant in healthcare, agriculture, and food preservation. However, there is a lack of studies concerning the toxicity and effectiveness of isolated potent phytotoxic substances, the efficacy screening in the field, the genetic diversity, the essential oil yield, and productivity. Consequently, further studies are required to fill the knowledge gaps.

Extraction and chemical constituents of the essential oils from Rosmarinus officinalis L. and Corymbia citriodora

The essential oils of Rosmarinus officinalis L. and Corymbia citriodora (Hook.) K.D.Hill & L.A.S.Johnson leaves have chemical constituents with fungicide potential. The objective of this work was to determine the yield and the main chemical compounds of the essential oils of these species. Plants of the two species were georeferenced and collected in municipalities of Rio Grande do Sul, and identified in the Botany Laboratory of UNIJUÍ. The essential oils were extracted by hydrodistillation and the yield was based on fresh vegetable mass. The analyses of the chemical constituents were determined by CG-MS. A yield of 0.49% was obtained for R. officinalis and of 1.54% for C. citriodora. Similar to other studies, the major constituents of rosemary essential oil were camphor, 1,8-cineol, canfene and α-pineno, and the ones of eucalyptus essential oil were citronelal, isopulegol and citronelol. It is concluded that the chemical constituents are similar to those reported in the literature and the essential oil yield of the species is low and dependent on external conditions.

Spatio-Temporal Variations of Volatile Metabolites as an Eco-Physiological Response of a Native Species in the Tropical Forest.

This study evaluates the essential oil (EO) composition of Piper rivinoides Kunth, a shrub native to the Brazilian tropical rainforest, across different plant parts and developmental phases. The aim was to explore the chemical diversity of EO and its reflection in the plant's ecological interactions and adaptations. Plant organs (roots, stems, branches, and leaves) at different developmental phases were subjected to hydrodistillation followed by chemical analysis using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) and Gas Chromatography-Flame Ionization Detector (GC-FID). The results revealed a relevant variation in EO yield and composition among different plant parts and developmental phases. Leaves showed the highest yield and chemical diversity, with α-pinene and β-pinene as major constituents, while roots and stems were characterized by a predominance of arylpropanoids, particularly apiol. The chemical diversity in leaves increased with plant maturity, indicating a dynamic adaptation to environmental interactions. The study underscores the importance of considering the ontogeny of plant parts in understanding the ecological roles and potential applications of P. rivinoides in medicine and agriculture. The findings contribute to the overall knowledge of Piperaceae chemodiversity and ecological adaptations, offering insights into the plant's interaction with its environment and its potential uses based on chemical composition.

Cytotoxic Activity and Phytochemical Analysis of Artemisia biennis Essential Oils at Different Growth Stages

Background: The Artemisia genus is well-known for its medicinal properties, particularly in Iranian traditional medicine. Artemisia biennis, a species within this genus, is widely distributed across Iranian rangelands. Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the cytotoxic activity and chemical composition of essential oils (EO) isolated from the aerial parts of A. biennis in Iran at different growth stages. Methods: The aerial parts of A. biennis from northeast Iran were collected during June (early vegetative stage), July (pre-flowering stage), August (full-flowering stage), and October (late vegetative stage). The essential oils (EOs) of the A. biennis species were extracted by hydro-distillation using a Clevenger-type apparatus and analyzed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The cytotoxic activity of the EOs against normal fibroblasts, MCF-7, and HT-29 cell lines was evaluated using the MTT assay. Results: Data from GC/MS analysis revealed that (Z)-nerolidol (22.62 - 54.4%), (E)-β-farnesene (6.89-16.38%), and (Z)-tonghaosu (12.33 - 18.61%) were the most abundant chemical constituents. The essential oil (EO) of A. biennis was characterized by a high content of oxygenated sesquiterpenes, with (Z)-nerolidol being the main constituent identified. Based on the MTT assay, the EO of the plant species collected in June exhibited the most potent cytotoxicity against MCF-7 (IC50 = 2.84 ± 0.15 µg/mL) and HT-29 cell lines (IC50 = 2.41 ± 0.2 µg/mL). Conclusions: The growth stage of A. biennis affects EO yields, the composition of extracted secondary metabolites, and cytotoxic activity. A. biennis EOs can be considered potential sources of cytotoxic phytochemicals.

Transcriptome Analyses Reveal Differences in the Metabolic Pathways of the Essential Oil Principal Components of Different Cinnamomum Chemotypes

The genus Cinnamomum exhibits a rich variety of chemotypes and is an economically important essential oil (EO)-producing plant belonging to the family Lauraceae. Here, we aimed to explore the potential differences in the terpenoid (the principal components of EOs) biosynthesis pathways of different chemotypes at the molecular level in four Cinnamomum species—C. camphora var. linaloolifera, C. kanehirae, C. longipaniculatum, and C. micranthum. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was employed to elucidate the discrepancies in the chemical profiles and compositions of leaf EO terpenoids among the four Cinnamomum species. The results revealed significant variations in leaf EO yields. The main constituents of the leaf EOs from C. camphora var. linaloolifera and C. kanehirae were the acyclic monoterpene linalool, and those of C. longipaniculatum and C. micranthum were the monoterpene eucalyptol and the sesquiterpene β-caryophyllene, respectively. Furthermore, a comparative transcriptome analysis of the leaves from the four Cinnamomum species revealed that differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were significantly enriched in terpene-related entries. Specifically, 42 and 24 DEGs were significantly enriched to the mevalonate (MVA)/2-methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathways and terpene synthase (TPS) activity, respectively. Most genes encoding proteins involved in the terpenoid precursor MVA and MEP pathways exhibited differential expression across the four species, which correlated with the distinct terpenoid profiles observed in their leaf EOs. Four acyclic monoterpene linalool synthase genes—Maker00024100, Maker00014813, Maker00014818, and Maker00018424—were highly expressed in C. camphora var. linaloolifera and C. kanehirae. A monoterpene eucalyptol synthesis gene, Maker00001509, was highly expressed in C. longipaniculatum, and a sesquiterpene β-stigmasterol synthesis gene, Maker00005791, was highly expressed in C. micranthum. These expression levels were subsequently validated through quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). In conclusion, the combined results of the GC-MS and transcriptome analyses revealed a strong correlation between the metabolite content of the EOs and gene expression. This research contributes to a better understanding of the differences in terpene accumulation in various chemotypes of Cinnamomum at the molecular and mechanistic levels, laying a solid foundation for the cultivation of an ideal Cinnamomum variety.