Vocabulary Learning Research Articles

This research study examines brain efficacy between Arabic-monolingual and English-Arabic bilingual university students by evaluating their vocabulary acquisition, learning capacity, thinking ability, and critical thinking skills. The study also explores the impact of academic semester progression on cognitive performance in both groups. A mixed-methods approach was employed. The study included 222 randomly selected students from various semesters. Data were collected via structured questionnaires, classroom activities, and performance-based assessments. The statistical analyses encompassed descriptive statistics, Chi-square tests, and t-tests. Cronbach’s alpha was employed to validate the reliability of the questionnaire responses. Findings indicated that bilingual students outperformed their monolingual counterparts in cognitive flexibility, adaptability, and critical thinking skills. They also demonstrated greater capabilities in vocabulary acquisition and abstract problem-solving. In contrast, monolingual students demonstrated proficiency in activities that necessitated repetition and organization, yet they had difficulties with abstract reasoning. Semester progression improved cognitive performance in both groups, with bilingual students exhibiting a steeper trajectory of improvement. The study provides a distinctive analysis of cognitive differences between monolingual and bilingual students, highlighting the influence of bilingualism on enhancing learning and critical thinking skills. It also highlights the positive impact of academic progression on cognitive developments. The results endorse the cognitive benefits of bilingualism, particularly in activities that require mental flexibility and abstract thinking.

Vocabulary acquisition is a critical component of English language instruction at the primary school level, as it serves as the foundation for mastering English as a foreign language. Young learners, typically in the early stages of cognitive and linguistic development, are particularly receptive to acquiring new languages, including English. Despite this potential, English teaching in primary schools often falls short of expectations, with teachers predominantly relying on traditional lecture-based methods. Such approaches fail to align with principles of effective pedagogy and do not fully develop students' potential. To address this issue, this study focuses on the design and development of the "English Vocabulary Dominoes Card" as an instructional tool for teaching English vocabulary to primary school students. Employing a Research and Development (R&D) methodology, the study follows the ADDIE model (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation) as its framework. The findings indicate that the English Vocabulary Dominoes Card, as a form of flashcard-based media, is highly effective, valid, and engaging, significantly enhancing vocabulary retention among primary school learners. The media garnered highly positive feedback in terms of ease of use, visual appeal, engagement, and its contribution to memory retention, with an overall average score of 91.60%. Moreover, the ADDIE framework proves to be highly effective in designing vocabulary dominoes card specifically tailored for primary learners, promoting both engagement and retention. This study adds to the growing body of evidence supporting the English Vocabulary Dominoes Card as an innovative and dependable tool for enhancing vocabulary acquisition in primary language learning.

This study examines the effects of drawing games on L2 vocabulary knowledge among Thai EFL learners. The study used a quasi-experimental design with 40 ninth-grade students from two intact classes assigned to an experimental group (drawing game activities) and a control group (traditional instruction). Vocabulary knowledge was assessed with four test types: passive recognition, active recognition, passive recall, and active recall. Pre-, post- and delayed post-test results were used to assess the acquisition and retention of vocabulary knowledge. The findings indicated that the experimental group significantly outperformed the control group in all test types, with the greatest improvements in recognition-based tasks. Post-hoc analyses confirmed a difficulty hierarchy for the four types of vocabulary knowledge: active recall, passive recall, active recognition, and passive recognition. Additionally, the delayed post-test results further indicated better long-term retention of drawing in the experimental group, confirming the lasting effect of drawing-based training. Additionally, student feedback revealed positive perceptions of drawing games, particularly regarding engagement, enjoyment, and effectiveness in form-meaning mapping. Together, the present study supplies empirical support for the use of drawing games as a pedagogical instrument for vocabulary learning in EFL settings. The results support the use of visual, interactive tasks in language education to enhance learners’ vocabulary performance, motivation, and long-term retention.

This study addresses the persistent challenge of limited vocabulary retention among language learners, which often results from memorisation practices that lack authentic use. The research investigates the effectiveness of Vocabulary Quest, an outdoor gamified activity that integrates movement, teamwork, and simple digital tools to make vocabulary learning active and meaningful. Quantitative and qualitative approaches were combined to capture both performance outcomes and learner perspectives. Fifty- two undergraduates participated in the activity, with twenty-two completing both the pre-test and post-test used for analysis. The results showed measurable improvement in vocabulary scores, while learner reflections revealed that enjoyment, collaboration, and repeated exposure to words enhanced recall and motivation. The findings indicate that embodied and game-based activities strengthen memory through physical engagement and social interaction. The study recommends that language educators incorporate similar movement oriented and collaborative learning designs to promote deeper retention and sustained engagement beyond traditional classroom settings.

The application of the Merdeka curriculum in Indonesian language learning has become a complex and challenging topic. Although the Merdeka Curriculum aims to provide more freedom to teachers and students in determining learning methods and materials, there are various problems that arise in its implementation. This research aims to identify and analyze the problems faced in implementing the Merdeka Curriculum, especially in learning Indonesian. As well as solutions carried out by teachers in overcoming problems that occur in the Class 5C Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Al Fithrah Surabaya class. This research method uses a descriptive qualitative approach and data collection techniques using observation, interview and documentation. Data analysis is carried out through data collection, data reduction, data presentation, and drawing conclusions. The results of research on the implementation of the Merdeka curriculum at Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Al Fithrah Surabaya have started in stages since the 2022-2023 academic year and are going quite well even though there are obstacles such as students’ low interest in reading, poor understanding of vocabulary, and the inability to differentiate between standard language and internet language. The solutions implemented include getting students used to reading, choosing reading that they like but are educational, creating vocabulary learning media, as well as providing in-depth training and using technological media for contextual learning with regular evaluations.

UNESCO (2023) has called for educators to use pedagogical approaches that prioritize human agency and a responsible interaction between humans and generative artificial intelligence (GenAI). The present study, therefore, sought to design and implement an innovative 5-stage GenAI-based project with Sports Science English for Specific Purposes (ESP) students. Specifically, the objective of the project was for students to create multimodal texts for promotional purposes while developing both critical thinking skills and vocabulary range. Upon completing the project, 42 students participated in a survey, analyzed with both quantitative and qualitative methods, to gauge the impact of the project. Regarding critical thinking skills, 95.2% of students revealed they learned it was important to use these skills when using chatbots, emphasizing the need to verify GenAI-generated content and external sources a chatbot uses. Concerning vocabulary learned, 85.7% of the students, irrespective of their self-perceived level, reported learning useful topic-based and general vocabulary, thus strongly implying generalized intentional and incidental vocabulary learning. The study’s main conclusion is that GenAI-based projects, when designed to primarily assess student critical reasoning, can create optimal conditions for vocabulary acquisition and critical thinking skill development. This approach can also have significant implications for GenAI-related teaching practice and student assessment. Keywords: Critical thinking; Vocabulary learning; GenAI; Project-based learning; ESP; Multimodal text creation

Although digital technology has been widely adopted in English language instruction, existing research often emphasizes general applications or large-scale platforms without closely examining how specific digital tools function within the context of vocational education. Most prior studies have focused on university students or general high school populations, with limited attention to how audio and visual elements in applications like Memrise influence motivation and vocabulary acquisition among vocational students. Furthermore, while Memrise has been recognized for its gamification and multimedia features, few empirical studies explore how these features interact with the unique learning needs, habits, and infrastructural challenges faced by students in vocational schools, particularly in rural or under-resourced settings. The lack of in-depth, context-specific studies examining the practical integration of Memrise into structured classroom routines—especially using qualitative insights—creates a significant gap in the literature. This study addresses that gap by exploring the perceptions and experiences of Class X students at SMKN 3 Metro, focusing on how Memrise’s visual, audio, and gamified elements affect motivation and vocabulary learning within a vocational education framework.

First language (L1) vocabulary is typically acquired over many years of exposure to spoken and written language. In contrast, second language (L2) learners acquire vocabulary differently, as they often lack the same opportunities for extensive and natural exposure. Vocabulary learning is generally classified into two approaches: “intentional” and “incidental” (Webb, 2020). Intentional learning occurs when learners consciously focus on acquiring new language features. In contrast, incidental vocabulary learning takes place unintentionally, as a by-product of engaging in activities such as reading news articles, watching TV programs, and listening to songs. Given that it is impossible to provide explicit instruction for every vocabulary item in class, incidental learning plays a crucial role in the success of L2 learners. To date, most studies on incidental vocabulary learning in L2 have focused primarily on reading (Pellicer-Sánchez & Schmitt, 2010), and a growing body of research has begun to explore aural input and audiovisual materials (Peters & Webb, 2018). However, the extent to which vocabulary is acquired incidentally varies considerably across studies. These discrepancies are likely attributable to differences in participant characteristics, research methodologies, and treatment conditions. Therefore, research design and methods should be carefully considered, and the results of such studies should be interpreted with caution. In response to the growing research on incidental vocabulary acquisition, the recently published book Researching Incidental Vocabulary Learning in a Second Language edited by Mark Feng Teng and Barry Lee Reynolds provides an overview of the research of incidental vocabulary learning, including both traditional and newly introduced methodologies, results, and pedagogical recommendations for incidental vocabulary learning in instruction based on the synthesis of the previous research. [First paragraph of review]

ABSTRACT A central issue in second language (L2) acquisition concerns how explicit learning (EL) and implicit statistical learning (ISL) aptitudes contribute during the earliest stages of learning, and whether the effect of EL precedes that of ISL, as traditionally assumed, or can instead follow it. This paper explores these possibilities by tracking the contributions of these two aptitudes, as well as sustained attention (SA) to vocabulary and grammar learning across five sessions of exposure to an artificial language. Results indicated that vocabulary and grammar learning were modulated by EL and SA, with ISL additionally accounting for variance in vocabulary learning. Crucially, contrary to the standard view, for both grammar and vocabulary, the ISL effects were most pronounced early on, whereas the EL effects increased over time. These results underscore the dynamic interplay between the two aptitudes in early L2 acquisition and highlight the time-varying nature of their contributions.

This qualitative single-case study investigates an Indonesian EFL learner’s perceptions of vocabulary learning strategies, an important but often overlooked aspect of language learning. Despite vocabulary being the core of mastering a foreign language, learners' perceptions remain underexplored, particularly in qualitative research. This study aims to address that gap by examining a single participant’s use of and perceptions of vocabulary learning strategies. Data were collected through a 32-item Likert-scale questionnaire based on Schmitt’s (1997) taxonomy and semi-structured interviews guided by the Cognitive-Affective-Conative (CAC) perception model by Schiffman & Kanuk (2004). The findings revealed a contradictory perception: although the participant acknowledged the effectiveness and practicality of vocabulary learning strategies, she also expressed a belief that exposure to language is more critical than strategic vocabulary learning. The participant showed a clear preference for social strategies and incidental learning, which she found more enjoyable and versatile than memory strategies. Her cognitive, affective, and conative responses suggest that motivation in vocabulary learning are deeply influenced by strategy flexibility and learner autonomy. The study concludes that EFL learners should be introduced to various vocabulary learning strategies early in their education, and educators should design instruction that respects learners’ preferences. This research highlights the importance of the learner’s perspective as an input to the growing literature in the EFL learning context and recommends broader, multi-participant qualitative studies in the future.

Vocabulary mastery plays a very important role in the ability to communicate in spoken dan written English skills. Effective vocabulary learning can improve students’ language skills, allowing them to use foreign languages with greater confidence and fluency in a variety of communication situations. However, in English language learning, students often experience difficulties in remembering and memorizing vocabulary. Therefore, it is important to integrate technology and interactive learning media in the English learning process. This approach is expected to provide a more flexible, effective, and enjoyable experience for students. This study aims to find out how students perceive the use of Wordwall in learning English vocabulary. The study involved 15 grade 4 and 5 students from Ban Loei Wangsai School, Thailand. By using a qualitative approach and interview as the main instrument, this research was conducted. The interview results showed that the students feel that learning using Wordwall is fun and helps them remember vocabulary more easily. Wordwall also proved to be able to increase their motivation and interest in learning English. These findings provide a clear picture of the effectiveness of Wordwall in supporting English language learning, especially in terms of vocabulary acquisition, and encourage the use of interactive media in the primary school context. This study implies that English teachers need to be creative in their classroom instruction including giving variation in the learning through the implementation of digital application

Language education has evolved significantly with the rapid advancement of digital technology, providing students with more interactive and engaging resources for vocabulary building. However, despite the increasing availability of digital learning resources (DLRs), a gap remains in students' perceptions of how these tools support their vocabulary development—particularly among high school students. This study investigates high school students’ perceptions of DLRs in enhancing vocabulary-building skills. A quantitative method was employed, collecting data from 236 high school students in the JABODETABEK area via an online questionnaire adapted from a previous study. The instrument demonstrated high internal reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.907). Descriptive analysis revealed that over 70% of students agreed or strongly agreed that DLRs are effective, enjoyable, and beneficial for vocabulary learning. Simple linear regression analysis showed a strong and significant positive correlation (R = 0.730, R² = 0.533, p = 0.001) between students' perceptions and the enhancement of their vocabulary-building skills. These findings indicate that positive student perceptions significantly predict vocabulary development. By offering a flexible, media-rich, and self-directed learning experience, DLRs play a crucial role in enhancing vocabulary acquisition. To maximize student learning outcomes, the integration of DLRs into language instruction should be prioritized.

Background In the digital age, visual symbols such as emojis have become integral to everyday communication. Despite their ubiquity, the cognitive and educational functions of emojis remain underexplored, particularly in the context of second language (L2) learning. Objectives This study aims to examine the potential of emojis as multimodal tools for enhancing vocabulary recognition in L2 learners. Specifically, it investigates whether emojis support more accurate and efficient semantic processing compared to traditional verbal translation methods. Methods A 2 (text type: emoji–Chinese vs. English–Chinese) × 2 (task type: match vs. mismatch) within-subjects experimental design was employed. Thirty English-speaking learners of Chinese participated and completed a series of semantic matching tasks. Reaction times and accuracy were recorded to assess cognitive processing under each condition. Results Participants demonstrated significantly faster response times and higher accuracy in the emoji–Chinese match condition compared to the English–Chinese condition, especially when semantic congruency was present. However, the facilitative effect of emojis was reduced in mismatch conditions, suggesting a context-dependent influence of visual symbols on learning outcomes. Conclusion These findings highlight the potential of emojis as semiotic and cognitive resources in L2 vocabulary learning. The study underscores the importance of context-sensitive integration of visual media in instructional design, offering practical implications for enhancing language learning through multimodal approaches. The findings suggest that emoji can facilitate vocabulary recognition. However, the current results should be interpreted as evidence that emoji facilitate learners’ performance in semantic matching tasks, rather than evidence of long-term vocabulary acquisition. Future research should incorporate delayed post-tests and retention measures to examine whether emoji support durable learning outcomes.

Abstract A multi-modal embodied robot framework was developed and evaluated to support English as a Second Language (ESL) learning in preschoolers through physical interaction and adaptive engagement. The system integrates a 4-DOF OpenManipulator-X robot with a tablet-based educational application, forming a unified instructional platform that delivers synchronized auditory, visual, and kinesthetic stimuli. Designed to improve lexical retention and motivation in early learners, the framework enables task-based interaction through pick-and-place vocabulary reinforcement, collaborative drawing, and tablet-mediated language tasks, coupled with a real-time emotion recognition module to adjust instructional cues. An experimental design within the subject was used with 21 Korean preschool children (ages 4–8), comparing robot-assisted language learning (RALL) with traditional teacher-led language learning (TLLL) in matched tasks involving vocabulary learning, math reasoning, color categorization, and spelling recall. Each session was conducted under controlled classroom conditions and analyzed using both quantitative and qualitative metrics, including engagement frequency, task precision, and structured post-session surveys. The results demonstrate significantly higher participation and task completion rates in the RALL condition, with vocabulary acquisition outcomes comparable to TLLL ( p > 0.05). Children exhibited increased motivation and sustained interaction when guided by the robot and the application, suggesting that embodied adaptive systems can effectively support early second language learning. The study contributes validated design principles for integrating physical embodiment, affective responsiveness, and multi-modal instructional delivery in educational robotics. Implications are discussed for the scalable deployment of robot-assisted systems in preschool contexts, emphasizing child-centered interaction and developmental appropriateness within RALL environments.

Vocabulary acquisition and retention are essential elements of language proficiency, particularly for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students. Traditional approaches to vocabulary teaching, including rote memorization and repetitive drills, often fail to maintain long-term retention due to their limited interactivity and engagement. In recent years, technology-based activities (TBAs) have emerged as innovative tools to enhance vocabulary learning and retention. These activities include mobile applications, online games, digital flashcards, multimedia resources, and collaborative digital platforms that provide immersive and interactive learning experiences. TBAs promote active learning by allowing students to engage with content in meaningful ways, receive immediate feedback, and practice repeated retrieval, which strengthens memory and facilitates long-term retention. In addition to improving retention, technology-based activities foster learner autonomy, enabling students to manage their own pace of learning and adapt strategies according to their individual needs. They also support multimodal learning through the integration of visual, auditory, and contextual cues, which enhances cognitive processing and vocabulary encoding. Moreover, TBAs offer opportunities for collaborative learning, where students can participate in digital discussions, peer feedback, and content co-creation, reinforcing social interaction and cooperative knowledge construction. Despite their advantages, the implementation of TBAs requires careful consideration, including access to reliable technology, avoidance of cognitive overload, and appropriate instructional design. This study investigates the role of TBAs in enhancing vocabulary retention among university EFL students, examining the types of activities that are most effective and identifying pedagogical strategies for successful integration into the curriculum. The findings highlight that TBAs not only increase motivation and engagement but also contribute to higher levels of long-term vocabulary retention and overall language proficiency. The study also discusses implications for educators, suggesting strategies for systematic integration, monitoring of learning progress, and promotion of collaborative digital tasks. Finally, it provides directions for future research, emphasizing the exploration of adaptive technologies, gamification, and innovative digital learning tools that could further enhance vocabulary acquisition and retention. Overall, the study underscores the significant potential of technology-based activities to transform vocabulary instruction and support the development of proficient, autonomous, and motivated EFL learners.

The present study aimed to bridge the gap in understanding the effects of captioned viewing on incidental vocabulary learning by using a forest plot to illustrate the influence of word-related factors and learner-related factors. Data were collected from 67 university students at a Chinese university. The results highlighted the significant effect of captioned viewing on incidental vocabulary learning and revealed the varied roles of both word- and learner-related factors in this process. Specifically, the study found that word frequency, word relevance, vocabulary breadth, phonological working memory, complex working memory, and English proficiency all play significant roles in vocabulary acquisition. These findings provide deeper insights into the relative value of captioned viewing for incidental vocabulary learning and identify which factors most significantly influence vocabulary gains. Implications were proposed to align with these findings.

ABSTRACT This study explores bimodal cross-language interactions in the context of sign language vocabulary learning. Specifically, whether such interactions occur during oral language production, and whether they extend to an oral language not directly used in the training. Across three sessions, hearing Catalan-Spanish non-signers were trained on Catalan Sign Language (LSC) signs through an associative learning task (LSC-written Catalan). Participants subsequently performed an LSC-to-Catalan prime translation task with primes written in Catalan or Spanish. The primes were either phonologically related or unrelated to the target signs via their LSC translations. Behaviourally, LSC phonologically related word primes elicited faster translations, regardless of the prime language. Conversely, the N400 ERP component showed prime language-dependent effects. N400 differences were initially limited to Catalan, the training language, and extended to Spanish by the third session. These findings highlight the dynamic interplay between oral and sign languages during early sign language learning.

Against the backdrop of flourishing digital education, fragmented learning has emerged as a significant approach for university students to build English vocabulary. This paper analyzes the characteristics, theoretical foundations, and effectiveness of fragmented learning in university English vocabulary acquisition. Drawing on empirical cases and cognitive science principles, it reveals both the advantages in enhancing vocabulary memorization efficiency and the challenges posed by systemic shortcomings. Further optimization pathways are proposed, including goal-oriented planning, integration of multimodal resources, and gamified incentive mechanisms. These aim to provide college students with scientific and efficient fragmented vocabulary learning solutions, promoting systematic knowledge construction and the formation of long-term memory.

This research investigates the effectiveness of Video Based Learning in enhancing vocabulary acquisition among eleventh-grade students at SMA YPK Pematang Siantar. The study employs a true experimental design with a quantitative approach, involving pre-test and post-test assessments to measure vocabulary improvement. Thirty-two students from class XI IPS 1 were selected as the sample. The data were collected through multiple-choice vocabulary tests and analyzed using SPSS 26.0. Findings reveal a significant increase in students' vocabulary scores after the implementation of video-based instruction, with the mean score rising from 70.47 (pre-test) to 87.34 (post-test). Statistical analysis confirms the effectiveness of the treatment, with a t-count of 7.678 exceeding the critical value. The results support the use of multimedia, particularly videos, as a powerful tool to enhance vocabulary learning through contextual, auditory, and visual reinforcement. This method not only improved students’ vocabulary mastery but also increased their engagement and confidence in language use.

This study examines the impact of the Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) application, Memrise, on the vocabulary learning motivation of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners and interprets the findings of the study based on Second Langugae Acquisition (SLA) theories to bridge the gap between theory and practice. Within this context, first, the related terms, concepts, and theories are clarified by referring to the related literature. Then, a synthesis of empirical studies between the years of 2016-2023 is presented through narrative review methodology. Thematic analysis is employed for data analysis. The results of the study reveal that through its gamified nature, competitive elements, mnemonics, audio-visual aids, and systematic repetition, Memrise increases learner motivation and engagement, promotes self-regulated learning, facilitates peer cooperation, aids in long-term vocabulary retention, and helps learners to master memorization and pronunciation. These results align with various SLA theories ranging from Comprehensible Input Hypothesis to Usage-Based Theory, which collectively explains how Memrise enhances motivation, engagement, and vocabulary retention. Nonetheless, specific constraints regarding the use of Memrise, such as technology accessibility challenges and variations in learning effectiveness in different learning contexts, are acknowledged, as well, indicating that Memrise should be used as a supplementary tool for blended learning rather than a standalone replacement for traditional instruction.