This research investigated whether individual differences in vocabulary knowledge influence mind wandering during first language (L1) and foreign language (L2) reading. In four independent studies involving different L1 and L2 pairings - German and English (Study 1), French and English (Study 2), English and German (Study 3), and German and French (Study 4) - participants completed measures of mind-wandering frequency, perceived reading difficulty, and comprehension. Studies 2-4 additionally assessed the intentionality of mind wandering. Across all studies, participants with lower vocabulary knowledge in their L2 compared to L1 showed higher frequencies of mind wandering during L2 compared to L1 reading. Studies 1 and 2 additionally included participants with comparable L1/L2 vocabulary knowledge and found no significant L1-L2 differences in mind wandering. Consistent with previous research, our findings suggest that the intentionality of mind wandering is sensitive to task demands. When L2 vocabulary knowledge impaired comprehension on the textbase and situation model levels, participants showed increased unintentional but not intentional mind wandering in L2 compared to L1 (Studies 3 and 4). Under these conditions, task demands likely exceeded available executive-control resources, allowing automatic and unintentional task-unrelated thoughts to intrude. In contrast, when L2 vocabulary supported comprehension at least on the textbase level (Studies 1 and 2), metacognitive evaluations became more influential. Specifically, participants showed more intentional but not unintentional mind wandering in L2 compared to L1, and perceived difficulty mediated the relationship between L2 vocabulary knowledge and mind wandering. Here, participants likely disengaged deliberately when the cognitive costs of L2 reading outweighed its perceived benefits.

Abstract This study investigated the effects of contextual diversity (CD) on second language incidental vocabulary learning. A total of 124 Japanese learners of English were allocated to a control group or 2 experimental groups, either a high contextual diversity (HCD) or a low contextual diversity (LCD) group. Participants in the HCD group encountered target words across three different texts that varied in genre and topic, while those in the LCD group read three different texts that shared the same genre and topic. Meaning recall and recognition tests were conducted at pretest, immediate posttest, and delayed posttest. Results showed that HCD outperformed LCD on meaning recognition at the delayed posttest. Moreover, learners with greater prior vocabulary knowledge tended to benefit more from contextually varied input, whereas such input may have adverse effects on learners with lower lexical proficiency. This study offers insights into the role of CD in incidental vocabulary acquisition and provides pedagogical implications for optimally incorporating input variability into L2 vocabulary instruction.

Abstract This study examined the impact of sound-and-spelling consistency of L2 English words on written vocabulary knowledge among Japanese learners studying English as a foreign language (EFL). In Study 1, 162 Japanese participants completed a multiple-choice meaning recognition test based on the updated Vocabulary Levels Test [VLT]; in Study 2, 107 Japanese participants completed a spelling test, adapted from the VLT used in Study 1. Two directions of consistency at the rime level (i.e., phonology to orthography and orthography to phonology) were analyzed, while controlling for other word-related variables (e.g., word frequency and cognateness). Although exploratory analyses revealed that the consistency effect emerged under controlled conditions for specific word types (i.e., noncognates) and frequency bands (i.e., high-frequency vocabulary), no reliable consistency effect was observed irrespective of test formats. These findings suggest that consistent words are not necessarily easier to learn, particularly for EFL learners whose L1 writing system is not alphabetic.

Exploring the interplay between aptitude, vocabulary learning strategies, and achievement in pre-service language teachers

The ability of second language (L2) learners to guess the meanings of unfamiliar words, which is known as lexical inference, is crucial for learning words and for reading comprehension. However, the extent to which L2 learners can make effective use of the contextual resources surrounding unfamiliar words remains uncertain, as many L2 studies seem to suggest a low success rate for lexical inferencing in context; furthermore, whether the relationship between contextual richness and the success of lexical inferencing is influenced by L2 learners' linguistic knowledge (i.e., vocabulary and grammatical knowledge) is undetermined. Sixty-six L2 Chinese learners who were attending Chinese universities participated voluntarily in this study. All the participants completed four computerized tasks: a short-term memory task, a vocabulary knowledge task, a grammatical knowledge task, and a lexical inferencing task with three contextual conditions. The results revealed that: 1) regardless of their linguistic knowledge, L2 learners performed better in lexical inference when provided with a more informative context compared to a less informative or a non-informative context, indicating that the degree of contextual richness plays a significant role in L2 learners' success; 2) L2 learners with greater linguistic knowledge performed marginally better when inferring the meanings of unknown words in the more informative context than did those with less linguistic knowledge; and. 3) although L2 learners' linguistic knowledge did not generally have a moderating effect on their lexical inference via the use of contextual information, there appeared to be some complexity in this relationship for participants with greater linguistic knowledge.

ABSTRACT Coastal regions increasingly face climate-related hazards such as tsunamis, highlighting an urgent need for schools to equip young learners with disaster-preparedness knowledge in line with Sustainable Development Goal 13 (Climate Action). Yet SDG 13 is still rarely integrated systematically into English language education, particularly in EFL contexts. This study investigates the integration of SDG 13 (Climate Action) into English language education using 360° virtual reality (VR) to improve students’ vocabulary acquisition and tsunami awareness. A quasi-experimental design was adopted with 96 junior high school students in Taiwan, divided into two groups: an immersive VR group (HiVR) and a desktop video group (LiVR). Both groups engaged with the same SDG-themed 360° videos but through different interaction methods. Vocabulary and disaster knowledge were assessed using pre- and post-tests, and data were analyzed through independent samples t-tests and ANCOVA. The results revealed that the VR group significantly outperformed the desktop group in vocabulary acquisition and showed higher tsunami awareness scores after controlling for prior knowledge. These findings indicate that immersive VR offers an effective means of contextualized vocabulary learning and enhances student engagement in tsunami- and climate-related English education. The study highlights the potential of VR as a pedagogical tool that supports both language development and sustainability-oriented disaster education in EFL contexts.

The main goal of this research was to examine the relationships among student characteristics, environmental factors, and component skills that influence reading comprehension among second-grade multilingual English language learners from Kenya. The study compares the predictive relationships among reading component skills, students, and environmental characteristics between learners with below average reading ability and those with average reading ability. Participants included 628 second-grade students in a randomized controlled trial who completed a series of literacy assessments at the end of their school year. Data analysis comprised a series of Zero-inflated Poisson regression models, with each reading component as the outcome variable. Predictor variables included gender, treatment status, age, socioeconomic status, school location, and various component reading skills, as identified in prior literature. The results from the count models showed that treatment, letter-sound knowledge, and vocabulary significantly influenced phonological awareness. Letter-sound knowledge and vocabulary significantly influenced decoding fluency. Decoding and vocabulary knowledge significantly predicted text reading fluency. Finally, letter-sound fluency, vocabulary, and text reading fluency predicted reading comprehension when all variables were included in the same model. The Zero-inflated model indicated that poor vocabulary knowledge increased the likelihood of zero scores on phonological awareness and reading comprehension. Increasing age was negatively correlated with phonological awareness and reading comprehension. The findings highlight that these skills are interconnected and crucial for reading comprehension. This study adds to the existing literature and offers pedagogical insights for literacy and language activities targeting English language learners in multilingual contexts.

BackgroundDiscourse type can alter the demands placed on L2 listeners by changing coherence, rhetorical density, and the balance between meaning-driven and form-driven processing. Building on the Information-Rich Discourse Hypothesis, this study examines whether an information-rich scientific text and a rhetorically complex literary text produce different patterns of listening comprehension, perceived effort, and metacognitive strategy use among EFL learners.MethodsSixty undergraduate EFL learners completed a within-subjects listening task involving two counterbalanced discourse conditions (scientific vs. literary). Outcomes included comprehension accuracy, processing speed, self-reported cognitive load, and self-reported use of top-down versus bottom-up metacognitive strategies. Analyses used paired comparisons and repeated-measures modeling that accounted for order and individual differences (listening anxiety and receptive vocabulary knowledge as a lexical-coverage proxy).ResultsListening to the information-rich scientific text resulted in significantly higher comprehension accuracy, faster processing, and lower cognitive load than listening to the rhetorically complex literary text. Strategy reports showed systematic adaptation across conditions, with greater reliance on top-down strategies in the scientific condition and greater reliance on bottom-up strategies in the literary condition. Individual differences were associated with variability in outcomes and strategy use; however, interpretations involving vocabulary are framed cautiously because the vocabulary measure reflects written receptive knowledge rather than phonological vocabulary access.ConclusionDiscourse type exerts robust effects on EFL listening performance, perceived effort, and strategic regulation. These findings support the Information-Rich Discourse Hypothesis and underscore that listening success depends on an interaction between discourse characteristics, learner profiles, and strategic processing.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40359-026-04684-2.

Background and AimsChildren with developmental language disorder (DLD) have difficulty learning new words, but we know little about whether and to what extent their word-learning ability improves over time. Our primary goal was to compare the rate of development of word learning abilities, specifically the encoding of new lexical-semantic information, in children with DLD and their age-mates with typical language development (TLD). Secondary goals were to examine variation in outcomes according to the aspect of word knowledge under consideration, the word-learning context, and the cognitive abilities of the learners.MethodsChildren with DLD (n= 38) and TLD (n = 45) participated in two experiments each year from Grades 1 to 4. In each, they were taught a new set of 12 novel words and their referents. The experiments involved a cross-situational word learning context (Study 1) and ostensive naming and mutual exclusivity contexts (Study 2). Post-training probes measured knowledge of the phonological form of the word and the link between the word and its referent. In Year 1, we measured various aspects of cognition. Linear mixed models with fixed effects for diagnostic group, year, and context yielded main outcomes.ResultsChildren with DLD were less able than peers with TLD to learn form- and link information in all three contexts and in all four years, but their relative rate of growth across the years was similar. Neither form- nor link-learning was consistently harder than the other for the DLD group; however, the size of the TLD-DLD performance gap was especially large for form learning in the ostensive naming (most direct) training context. The lower cognitive abilities of children with DLD, especially phonological short-term memory and receptive vocabulary knowledge, accounted for variance in form and link learning. With cognitive scores in the statistical models, the TLD-DLD gap in link learning was no longer significant.ConclusionsAs a group, primary school children with DLD present with weaknesses in word learning abilities but age-appropriate rates of improvement in those abilities over time. The problem reflects their lower verbal cognition. The extent of the problem varies with the context in which the word is learned and the aspect of word knowledge that is measured as an outcome.ImplicationsThe implication for scientists is that a diversity of contexts and outcome measures must be included in future research. The implication for clinicians is two-fold. First, brief opportunities to learn word forms in ostensive naming contexts may be leveraged for dynamic assessments, as it is this learning goal and this learning context that most effectively distinguished DLD from TLD. Second, when treating a child with DLD, the common practice of direct teaching is unlikely to be effective unless active engagement, sufficiently high dosage, optimally sized target sets, and rich vocabulary instruction are included.

Previous research has linked inattentive symptom expression to reading difficulties, primarily in clinically referred samples or using indirect academic indicators. The present study examines attentional variability in a nonreferred community-based school sample with no clinical diagnoses or referrals, using standardized reading measures. The study further tested whether attentional variability moderates associations between cognitive linguistic skills and reading comprehension. 267 fifth grade students (mean age = 10.8 years) completed standardized measures of word reading efficiency, vocabulary knowledge, working memory, and reading comprehension. Based on parent and teacher ratings, approximately one-third of the sample showed elevated levels of inattentive symptom expression. Regression analyses indicated that vocabulary knowledge and word reading efficiency accounted for the largest proportion of explained variance in reading comprehension, whereas working memory showed weaker associations. Moderation analyses revealed that attentional symptom expression selectively moderated the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension, such that the positive association between vocabulary and comprehension was attenuated among students with elevated attentional symptom expression. No moderation effects were observed for word reading efficiency or working memory. These findings suggest that attentional variability is differentially related to specific cognitive linguistic components involved in reading comprehension.

ABSTRACT This study investigated the cross‐modality correlations among L2 listening comprehension skills (TOEIC) and aural and orthographic vocabulary knowledge for both single words and phrasal verbs, with reading comprehension used as a comparative measure. Importantly, meaning recall tests were employed because meaning recognition tests may overestimate learners’ vocabulary knowledge. Data from 76 Japanese university learners showed that both vocabulary modalities were related to L2 listening comprehension. However, partial correlation analyses indicated that only aural phrasal verb knowledge showed a small but significant association with L2 listening comprehension. These findings indicate that the contribution of aural phrasal verb knowledge to L2 listening comprehension is limited, while the integrated development of both aural and orthographic vocabulary knowledge, including phrasal verbs, is beneficial for this learner group.

Due to increasing interest in investigating the effects of individual differences in language proficiency on word recognition, there is a growing need for objective, reliable, and valid proficiency measures for adult native speakers. While such measures are available for English (Andrews & Hersch, 2010), few comparable instruments are available for simplified Chinese, hindering rigorous investigation into individual differences in word recognition. To address this, we developed Chinese Language Assessments of Proficiency (CLAP). CLAP can be completed within 30min and comprises: (1) a dictation test with 20 short-answer questions, (2) a vocabulary knowledge test with 30 multiple-choice questions, and (3) a reading comprehension test with 24 multiple-choice questions. Test development proceeded in two phases. In Phase 1, test items were developed and pilot-tested with 50 native Chinese participants. Item response theory analyses were performed to select items for the final tests. In Phase 2, the final tests were validated among 200 participants. The three tests demonstrated good reliability (McDonald's ω and Cronbach's α > 0.8), acceptable test homogeneity (average interitem correlations: .17 - .29), and good convergent validity, evidenced by significant, positive correlations with scores on two validation measures: (1) LEXTALE-CH, a character-based proficiency test (Chan & Chang, 2018); and (2) Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi, a test assessing grammar, vocabulary and reading skills (HSK official website). Exploratory Factor Analyses demonstrated that CLAP tests and validation measures all loaded onto a single factor. CLAP provides a practical tool for studying individual differences in language proficiency or screening participants based on proficiency.

A useful distinction within cognitive and brain sciences is that between fluid and crystallized ability. Although fluid ability is widely studied, crystalized ability, which draws on acquired, declarative semantic knowledge and the mental lexicon, has been less well studied. Partly this is due to the culture and language specificity of assessment methods. We developed and assessed the psychometric properties of a simple 42-item lexical decision task that could be used with Thai speakers to assess the breadth of their crystalized vocabulary knowledge. A large sample of responses from 662 Thai-speaking participants, collected online, was used to refine the scale through exploratory factor analysis, and establish its internal consistency. A smaller sample of 90 participants was interviewed to establish validity of the task as a measure of Thai vocabulary. Large positive correlations (i.e., > .3) were found between the Thai Lexical Decision Task and measures of verbal fluency, particularly in the first 30 seconds of responding, and with other measures of Thai language skill. Temporal stability of the scale was assessed in a subsample of 27 participants. This confirmed that the Thai Lexical Decision Task has little obvious practice effect and excellent test-retest reliability. We also observed the expected positive associations with age, educational level, and self-reported proficiency in the language, supporting the ability of the task to measure acquired, crystalized knowledge. This new task could be used to estimate cognitive ability in Thai adults and shows potential as a measure of premorbid cognitive function for use in neuropsychological assessments.

Reading comprehension is critical for academic success, yet many children with persistent decoding difficulties struggle to achieve it. This study examined whether a multicomponent literacy intervention is effective in improving reading comprehension and whether any gains in comprehension are mediated by improvements in word reading and vocabulary knowledge. In a randomised controlled trial (RCT), 285 English-speaking children aged 7-9 years with reading difficulties were assigned to a waitlist control group or the Research Informed Literacy with Language (RILL) intervention, a structured, multicomponent programme targeting decoding and language skills. Literacy outcomes were assessed at baseline (t1), postintervention (t2) and at 4-month follow-up (t3). The trial was preregistered; https://www.isrctn.com/ISRCTN18940975. Children receiving RILL showed significantly greater gains in word-level literacy (d = 0.19, p < .001), taught vocabulary (d = 0.30, p = .017) and reading comprehension (d = 0.23, p = .011) immediately postintervention. Effects were sustained at follow-up (word-level literacy d = 0.17; taught vocabulary d = 0.30; comprehension d = 0.25). Mediation analyses, showed a significant indirect effect of the intervention on comprehension at delayed follow-up via word-level literacy at t2 (y-standardised indirect β = .10, 95% CI [0.06, 0.12]), with a negligible direct effect (y-standardised β = .01, 95% CI [-0.20, 0.20]). In an additional exploratory parallel-mediation model, both t2 word-level literacy and taught vocabulary showed unique indirect effects on t3 comprehension (word-level literacy indirect: β = .16, 95% CI 0.10, 0.21, and taught vocabulary indirect β = .11, 95% CI 0.02, 0.23). Our intervention produced immediate and sustained improvements in word-level literacy, taught vocabulary and reading comprehension in struggling readers. Persisting decoding weaknesses are common in later primary years, and our findings show that improving word reading can produce enduring benefits for comprehension.

This study examines the correlation between word class mastery and students’ writing skills, addressing the limited attention given to specific grammatical dimensions of vocabulary in writing research. A quantitative correlational design was employed, involving 35 third-semester students of the English Language Education program at the University of Muhammadiyah Prof. Dr. Hamka. Data were collected through a word class test and a writing test and analyzed using Microsoft Excel and SPSS. The results reveal a very strong and statistically significant positive correlation between word class mastery and students’ writing skills (r = 0.987, p &lt; 0.01, two-tailed). This finding suggests that students with higher mastery of word classes tend to demonstrate better writing performance. However, the exceptionally high correlation should be interpreted with caution, as it may reflect overlapping constructs, the relatively small and homogeneous sample, and similarities in the assessment design. This study contributes to the literature by highlighting word class mastery as a specific and functionally important component of vocabulary knowledge in writing. Pedagogically, the findings suggest the need to integrate explicit grammar instruction into writing activities. Further research with larger and more diverse samples is recommended to validate these findings.

This mixed-methods quasi-experimental study examined the psychological correlates of metacognitive strategy use and the vocabulary development paths of vocational college students learning English within a personalized teaching environment. Two intact non-English-major classes at a vocational college in eastern China (N = 120) were randomly assigned at the class level to an experimental condition receiving a 16-week personalized intervention and a control condition receiving conventional whole-class instruction. Quantitative data were gathered through a vocabulary-oriented adaptation of the Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire, a psychological characteristics inventory assessing self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and learning anxiety, and the Vocabulary Levels Test and Vocabulary Knowledge Scale, administered at pretest, midpoint (Week 8), and posttest (Week 16). A qualitative strand comprising semi-structured interviews with 18 stratified-purposive participants supplemented the quantitative measures, and independent observer-rated treatment fidelity was documented across 25% of sessions. Correlation analyses indicated dimension-specific associations: self-efficacy co-varied most strongly with monitoring, whereas learning anxiety was inversely associated primarily with planning. The experimental group showed significantly higher posttest scores on all three metacognitive dimensions and on both vocabulary breadth and depth, with medium-to-large effect sizes. Stepwise regressions revealed divergent predictor profiles: breadth was associated with self-efficacy and monitoring, while depth was associated with intrinsic motivation and evaluation. Qualitative accounts converged with these patterns, pointing to self-efficacy repair, reduced evaluative threat, and volitional shift as experiential correlates of the observed changes. Given the correlational and group-based nature of the analyses, the findings are interpreted associatively rather than causally; they nonetheless offer theoretical refinement to models of L2 vocabulary acquisition and practical guidance for vocational English program design.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40359-026-04595-2.

This study examined the implementation and instructional effectiveness of a multimodal AI-supported instructional framework integrating a generative AI assistant (Microsoft Copilot) with a speech-recognition-based mobile learning application (Mondly) to support productive vocabulary development in EFL higher education. Unlike studies focusing on single AI tools, this study evaluates a coordinated dual-module instructional configuration combining LLM-based lexical support with ASR-based spoken retrieval practice within a structured classroom routine. The proposed framework can be viewed as a lightweight socio-technical instructional arrangement in which learners engage with complementary AI components through guided feedback and repeated practice. A quasi-experimental pretest–post-test control group design was conducted over an eleven-week semester with 64 first-year EFL students at an Iraqi university. Productive vocabulary knowledge was measured using the Productive Vocabulary Levels Test (PVLT), and data were analyzed using mixed-design ANOVA. Results revealed a statistically significant Time × Group interaction with a large effect size, indicating greater productive vocabulary gains in the AI-supported condition compared with traditional instruction. Qualitative findings further suggested perceived improvements in lexical retrieval, sentence construction, pronunciation accuracy, and learner engagement. From an instructional perspective, the findings suggest that learning gains were associated with the coordinated use of complementary AI tools within a structured classroom workflow. This study provides a practical instructional model that may be adaptable to comparable resource-constrained higher-education contexts.

The main aim of the research presented here was to explore the relevance of vocabulary knowledge, primarily deep vocabulary knowledge, in the reading accuracy and speed of Spanish readers. A total of 352 children took part in the research, all pupils in the third, fourth and fifth years of Spain’s primary education system. They completed tasks to assess the breadth and depth of their receptive and expressive vocabulary, reading accuracy and speed, non-verbal intelligence and phonemic awareness. Our findings show that vocabulary depth and phonemic awareness are significant variables in predicting success in reading performance. We explore in greater depth the idea that as pupils progress on their learning path in reading, linguistic variables such as vocabulary have a greater influence on predicting reading accuracy and speed. We also discuss the implications for theory and practice.

Abstract This study examined effects of corpus-based instruction (CBI) on first-year undergraduates' receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge development and challenges. A mixed-methods approach and quasi-experimental design were used to answer the research questions. Participants of the study were 91 first-year undergraduate students aged over 18. Data were gathered through tests, reflective journals, and semi-structured interview. The one-way MANOVA results indicated a significant effect of both instructions on the participants’ receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge development. However, CBI had a medium to large effect size on the receptive vocabulary knowledge development and a small to medium effect on the productive vocabulary knowledge development. The reflective journal and interview data also showed that most of the participants found CBI easy. However, participants also pointed out that some concordance lines included difficult words to understand, and they were unable to access more than 20 words in 24 h, which they saw as a challenge. Therefore, EFL teachers should integrate CBI to develop students’ receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge.

Children with developmental language disorder (DLD) have difficulty making online predictions of language material following verbs (e.g., "The monkey eats a very delicious … [banana]"). We explore the contributions of lexicosemantic knowledge deficits and online processing deficits by comparing performance across offline lexicosemantic and online processing tasks in sentences with higher versus lower speed and complexity. Participants included twenty-six 4- to 5-year-old children with DLD and 26 age-matched children with typical development (TD). In Experiment 1, participants' lexicosemantic knowledge about verb-patient associates was assessed (e.g., "What do babies usually wear? A bib or a necklace?") in an offline pointing task. Following the offline task, participants' online predictive processing for the same verb-patient associates was assessed using eye tracking (e.g., "The baby is wearing a very special [bib vs. necklace]"). In Experiment 2, the same tasks were completed with simpler sentences spoken at a slower rate with a reduced number of words. Across the two experiments, the quality of lexicosemantic knowledge impacted the quality of sentence prediction for children in both groups. In addition, children with DLD had poorer lexicosemantic knowledge compared to peers with TD. Yet even after accounting for item-level lexicosemantic knowledge, the children with DLD differed from their peers with TD in sentence prediction. Specifically, children with DLD showed similar sentence prediction to peers with TD in faster sentences, but in slower sentences, their predictions decayed over time. Children with DLD have sentence prediction deficits due to a combination of lexicosemantic knowledge deficits and problems with working memory decay and sustained attention. Sentence prediction deficits in DLD arise from both lexicosemantic and processing factors. https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.31999236.