Visuospatial Problem Solving Research Articles

Cognitive Effort during Visuospatial Problem Solving in Physical Real World, on Computer Screen, and in Virtual Reality.

Spatial cognition plays a crucial role in academic achievement, particularly in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) domains. Immersive virtual environments (VRs) have the growing potential to reduce cognitive load and improve spatial reasoning. However, traditional methods struggle to assess the mental effort required for visuospatial processes due to the difficulty in verbalizing actions and other limitations in self-reported evaluations. In this neuroergonomics study, we aimed to capture the neural activity associated with cognitive workload during visuospatial tasks and evaluate the impact of the visualization medium on visuospatial task performance. We utilized functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) wearable neuroimaging to assess cognitive effort during spatial-reasoning-based problem-solving and compared a VR, a computer screen, and a physical real-world task presentation. Our results reveal a higher neural efficiency in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) during 3D geometry puzzles in VR settings compared to the settings in the physical world and on the computer screen. VR appears to reduce the visuospatial task load by facilitating spatial visualization and providing visual cues. This makes it a valuable tool for spatial cognition training, especially for beginners. Additionally, our multimodal approach allows for progressively increasing task complexity, maintaining a challenge throughout training. This study underscores the potential of VR in developing spatial skills and highlights the value of comparing brain data and human interaction across different training settings.

The psychophysics of human three-dimensional active visuospatial problem-solving

Our understanding of how visual systems detect, analyze and interpret visual stimuli has advanced greatly. However, the visual systems of all animals do much more; they enable visual behaviours. How well the visual system performs while interacting with the visual environment and how vision is used in the real world is far from fully understood, especially in humans. It has been suggested that comparison is the most primitive of psychophysical tasks. Thus, as a probe into these active visual behaviours, we use a same-different task: Are two physical 3D objects visually the same? This task is a fundamental cognitive ability. We pose this question to human subjects who are free to move about and examine two real objects in a physical 3D space. The experimental design is such that all behaviours are directed to viewpoint change. Without any training, our participants achieved a mean accuracy of 93.82%. No learning effect was observed on accuracy after many trials, but some effect was seen for response time, number of fixations and extent of head movement. Our probe task, even though easily executed at high-performance levels, uncovered a surprising variety of complex strategies for viewpoint control, suggesting that solutions were developed dynamically and deployed in a seemingly directed hypothesize-and-test manner tailored to the specific task. Subjects need not acquire task-specific knowledge; instead, they formulate effective solutions right from the outset, and as they engage in a series of attempts, those solutions progressively refine, becoming more efficient without compromising accuracy.

Psychophysical performance differences associated with auditory spatial attention in older listeners with and without hearing loss

In a busy listening environment with multiple speakers, even normal-hearing listeners may face difficulties in understanding speech (i.e., “the cocktail party problem”). Individual factors related to bottom-up and/or top-down processing difficulties may be associated with the listener’s ability to attend to speech, a key component in navigating complex acoustic environments. The present study tested listeners on a battery of psychophysical measures and compared listener performance to cortical measures (EEG) of spatial-change tuning and auditory spatial attention. The behavioral tests measured both perceptual and cognitive performance and included: frequency modulation detection, spectro-temporal modulation sensitivity, spatial release from masking, temporal gap detection, auditory and non-auditorysustained attention, and visuo-spatial problem solving. The EEG paradigm tested the listener’s ability to attend to moving speech in quiet or background babble in the free field. Older listeners with and without hearing loss (n = 20 per group) demonstrated wide individual performance for some measures and significant correlations between behavioral thresholds and cortical responses, consistent with a more refined view of age-related hearing loss and a need for a more holistic approach in diagnoses for individuals beyond standard clinical tests. [Work supported by NIH R21DC017832.]

Gaze behaviour: A window into distinct cognitive processes revealed by the Tower of London test

The analysis of gaze behaviour during complex tasks provides a promising non-invasive method to examine how specific eye movement patterns relate to various aspects of cognition and action. Notably, the association between aspects of gaze behaviour and subsequent goal-directed action during high-level visuospatial problem solving remains elusive. Therefore, the current study comprehensively examined gaze behaviour using traditional and entropy-based gaze analyses in healthy adults (N = 27) while they performed the Freiburg version of the Tower of London task. Results demonstrated that both gaze analyses provided crucial temporal and spatial information related to planning, solution elaboration and execution. Specifically, gaze biases toward task-relevant areas (i.e., the work space) and an increase in gaze complexity (i.e., gaze transition entropy) during optimal performance reflected changes in cognitive demands as task difficulty increased. A comparison between optimal and non-optimal performance revealed sub-optimal gaze patterns that occurred in the early stages of planning, which were taken to reflect poor information extraction from the task environment and impaired maintenance of information in visuospatial working memory. Gaze behaviour during movement execution indicated an increased need to extract and process information from the goal space. Consequently, movement execution time increased in order to reverse erroneous movements and re-sequence the problem solution. Taken together, the traditional and entropy-based gaze analyses applied in the present study provide a promising approach to identify eye movement patterns that support neurocognitive performance on tasks relying on visuospatial planning and problem solving.

Effects of Noninvasive Cervical Vagal Nerve Stimulation on Cognitive Performance But Not Brain Activation in Healthy Adults

ObjectivesWhile preliminary evidence suggests that noninvasive vagal nerve stimulation (nVNS) may enhance cognition, to our knowledge, no study has directly assessed the effects of nVNS on brain function and cognitive performance in healthy individuals. The aim of this study was therefore to assess whether nVNS enhances complex visuospatial problem solving in a normative sample. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to examine underlying neural substrates. Material and MethodsParticipants received transcutaneous cervical nVNS (N = 15) or sham (N = 15) stimulation during a 3 T fMRI scan. Stimulation lasted for 2 min at 24 V for nVNS and at 4.5 V for sham. Subjects completed a matrix reasoning (MR) task in the scanner and a forced-choice recognition task outside the scanner. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to assess group differences in cognitive performance. And linear mixed effects (LMEs) regression analysis was used to assess main and interaction effects of experimental groups, level of MR task difficulty, and recall accuracy on changes in blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) signal. ResultsSubjects who received nVNS showed higher accuracy for both easy (p = 0.017) and hard (p = 0.013) items of the MR task, slower reaction times for hard items (p = 0.014), and fewer false negative errors during the forced-choice recognition task (p = 0.047). MR task difficulty related to increased activation in frontoparietal regions (p < 0.001). No difference between nVNS and sham stimulation was found on BOLD response during performance of the MR task. ConclusionsWe hypothesize that nVNS increased attention compared to sham, and that this effect led to enhanced executive functions, and consequently to better performance on visuospatial reasoning and recognition tasks. Results provide initial support that nVNS may be a low-risk, low-cost treatment for cognitive disorders.

The Reliability of the African Neuropsychology Battery in Persons of African Descent.

The African Neuropsychology Battery (ANB) includes eight culturally appropriate cognitive tests developed for use in the Congo and other sub-Saharan African populations. The current study examines the reliability of the ANB in three samples of participants of African descent. Subjects were recruited in the United States and the Congo to participate in three studies of ANB internal consistency reliability (Study 1), test-retest reliability (Study 2), and interrater reliability for the two ANB measures (i.e., Visuospatial Memory and Proverb Tests) requiring examiner ratings of response adequacy (Study 3). Subjects were administered ANB tests of visuospatial perception, language, memory, abstract reasoning, and problem solving. We calculated Cronbach's alpha, corrected item-total correlations and mean inter-item correlations for internal consistency, Pearson product-moment correlations and intraclass correlation coefficients for test-retest reliability, and intraclass correlation coefficients for interrater reliability. The ANB tests had acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's alphas ranging from .37 to .93). Across subtests, test-retest reliability coefficients ranged from .39 to .91, and intraclass correlation stability coefficients (ICCs) ranged from .39 to .82. Of the two ANB tests requiring interrater reliability, only the Proverb Test had a low ICC of .13, (confidence intervals: -.29 to .52). The present study demonstrated that most ANB tests show adequate reliability in participants of African descent. However, the scoring criteria of the African Proverb Test require revision in order to improve the interrater reliability of the measure.

The Effect of Donepezil on Problem-solving Ability in Individuals With Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Pilot Study.

Clinical trials involving individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) have reported mixed results for the effects of cholinesterase inhibitors on cognitive outcomes. Our previous work demonstrated that a visuospatial problem-solving task was sensitive to non-memory impairments in individuals with MCI. To determine whether the same task is also sensitive to the effects of cholinesterase inhibitors in individuals with amnestic MCI (aMCI). We gave 22 individuals with aMCI (clinical dementia rating of 0.5) and Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores of at least 24 the following measures at baseline and at follow-up 1 year later: Hopkins Verbal Learning Test, Boston Naming Test, Rey Complex Figures Test copying task, anagrams task, and visuospatial problem-solving task. The MMSE was also given at the 1-year follow-up. Twelve of the individuals were drug naïve, having never taken cholinesterase inhibitors before, and donepezil was initiated and titrated to 10 mg daily after baseline in an open-label manner. Ten of the individuals had already been taking donepezil, and there was no change in treatment. We compared the two groups for amount of performance change over 1 year. Individuals for whom donepezil was initiated performed significantly better on the visuospatial problem-solving task after 1 year compared with individuals who had already been taking donepezil. No difference was observed for any of the other variables. The visuospatial problem-solving task appeared to be more sensitive than memory measures to the effects of cholinesterase inhibitors in individuals with aMCI, perhaps due to the high attentional demand of the task.

The enhancement of visuospatial abilities through pencil-and-paper or computer-aided training: What is more effective in 7-year-old pupils?

ABSTRACT This investigation examines the impact of two psychoeducational programs (i.e., computer-assisted versus pencil-and-paper) for the empowerment of visuospatial skills of 7-year-old pupils. At pretest, posttest and at a three-month follow-up, 58 children attending the second grade of Italian primary school completed a battery of tests assessing visuospatial problem solving, speed of processing, spatial comprehension, mental imagery, passive and active verbal working memory, respectively. After the pretest, 19 participants were presented the computer-assisted “Recovery in … visuo-spatial abilities” training, whereas further 20 pupils were trained with the pencil-and-paper “Recovery in … visuo-spatial abilities” psychoeducational intervention, respectively. At posttest and follow-up, the positive impact of the computer-assisted training has been documented, whereas the efficacy of the pencil-and-paper intervention has been found only at the posttest. Overall, the computer-based program was particularly effective in favoring the development of spatial comprehension, mental imagery, and processing speed in second graders.

Overtly prompting people to “think in opposites” supports insight problem solving

This study aims to investigate the hypothesis that “thinking in opposites” might facilitate insight problem solving. For example, if the image relating to a problem is oriented horizontally, it may be that making it vertical makes it easier to see the solution. We focus on visuo-spatial insight problem solving and study four conditions (training vs. hint, overt vs. covert identification of opposites) which differ in terms of the participants’ awareness of how considering the opposites relating to a problem might lead to possible representational transformations which would help them in their search for the solution. The training condition was associated with a greater proportion of correctly solved problems. Participants who found the solution after training also made fewer attempts and did it in a shorter time. Furthermore, they referred more frequently to the instructions they had received to use opposites and made more use of the opposites they had listed in their initial exploration (overt listing condition). Overall the results show that suggesting to the participants that they “think in opposites” worked better when it was proposed as an explicit, systematic strategy.

Neuropsychological predictors of patient-reported cognitive decline after deep brain stimulation in Parkinson’s disease

ABSTRACTBackground: Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is effective for treatment of motor complications of dopaminergic therapy in Parkinson’s disease (PD) but occasionally has been associated with multidomain cognitive decline. Patient- and caregiver-reported cognitive decline are clinically meaningful and increasingly recognized as important to consider when evaluating therapeutic interventions for PD.Objective: The objective was to assess presurgical neuropsychological and clinical factors associated with PD patient- and caregiver-reported cognitive decline in two or more domains after DBS.Method: A single telephone survey was used to assess patient- and caregiver-reported cognitive decline in five domains at both one and four months after DBS surgery. Decline in two or more domains was considered multidomain cognitive decline (MDCD). Baseline demographic, clinical, and neuropsychological factors were compared in those with or without MDCD. Preoperative neuropsychological measures were evaluated as risk factors and regressed on the presence of MDCD, with demographic covariates, using multiple logistic regression.Results: Preoperative performance in verbal recognition memory, language knowledge, and verbal processing decline were associated with postoperative, patient-reported MDCD in the first four weeks. MDCD at four months after DBS was associated with worse preoperative verbal reasoning, verbal recall, and semantic verbal fluency. Caregiver-reported MDCD one month after DBS was associated with poorer baseline verbal memory recognition accuracy/discriminability, visuospatial problem solving, and constructional praxis.Conclusion: Poor presurgical performance in verbal memory recognition, language processing, and visuospatial performance is associated with patient- or caregiver-reported decline following DBS surgery. Posterior cortical dysfunction seems to portend significant self-reported cognitive decline following deep brain stimulation.

Utility of the Hebb-Williams Maze Paradigm for Translational Research in Fragile X Syndrome: A Direct Comparison of Mice and Humans.

To generate meaningful information, translational research must employ paradigms that allow extrapolation from animal models to humans. However, few studies have evaluated translational paradigms on the basis of defined validation criteria. We outline three criteria for validating translational paradigms. We then evaluate the Hebb–Williams maze paradigm (Hebb and Williams, 1946; Rabinovitch and Rosvold, 1951) on the basis of these criteria using Fragile X syndrome (FXS) as model disease. We focused on this paradigm because it allows direct comparison of humans and animals on tasks that are behaviorally equivalent (criterion #1) and because it measures spatial information processing, a cognitive domain for which FXS individuals and mice show impairments as compared to controls (criterion #2). We directly compared the performance of affected humans and mice across different experimental conditions and measures of behavior to identify which conditions produce comparable patterns of results in both species. Species differences were negligible for Mazes 2, 4, and 5 irrespective of the presence of visual cues, suggesting that these mazes could be used to measure spatial learning in both species. With regards to performance on the first trial, which reflects visuo-spatial problem solving, Mazes 5 and 9 without visual cues produced the most consistent results. We conclude that the Hebb–Williams mazes paradigm has the potential to be utilized in translational research to measure comparable cognitive functions in FXS humans and animals (criterion #3).

La Enseñanza pre-Universitaria en Ciencia y Tecnología Puede Influir en las Funciones Ejecutivas

Introducción. Las áreas científicas y tecnológicas incluyen una enseñanza basada en una alta especialización viso-espacial y de resolución de problemas. Estas capacidades espaciales y de resolución de problemas están integradas en un plan de estudios que promueve la comprensión de asignaturas científicas y técnicas y están relacionadas con el desarrollo de las funciones ejecutivas (FE). Nuestro objetivo es evaluar si los estudiantes que han estudiado las ramas de Ciencia y Tecnología en los estudios pre-universitarios presentan mejores FE implicadas en el razonamiento espacial y la resolución de problemas.Método. Se evaluaron seis FE diferentes en dos grupos de estudiantes: estudiantes de Ciencia y Tecnología (grupo ST) y estudiantes matriculados en el primer curso de Psicología con estudios pre-universitario no orientados hacia la ciencia y la tecnología (grupo No-ST). Evaluamos la memoria de trabajo espacial, la planificación, la inhibición, la flexibilidad mental y el razonamiento verbal y abstracto en ambos grupos.Resultados. El estudio reveló que la memoria espacial y la planificación fueron significativamente mejores en el grupo ST en comparación con el grupo No-ST. El grupo No- ST presenta más impulsividad. No hubo diferencias entre los grupos en el resto de los FE evaluadas.Conclusión. Los estudios pre-universitarios de ciencia y tecnología pueden influir en las FE mediante la mejora de la planificación y la memoria de trabajo espacial, así como en una menor impulsividad.

Factor Analysis of an Expanded Halstead-Reitan Battery and the Structure of Neurocognition.

The structure of neurocognition is explored by examining the neurocognitive domains underlying comprehensive neuropsychological assessment of cognitively healthy individuals. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted on the adult normative dataset of an expanded Halstead-Reitan Battery (eHRB), comprising Caucasian and African American participants. The factor structure contributions of the original HRB, eHRB expansion, and Wechsler intelligence scales were compared. Demographic effects were examined on composite factor scores calculated using confirmatory factor analysis. The full eHRB had an eight-factor structure, with latent constructs including: 'working memory', 'fluency', 'verbal episodic memory', 'visuospatial cognition' (visuospatial memory and problem solving), 'perceptual-motor speed' (speed for processing visual/tactile material and hand-motor execution), 'perceptual attention' (attention to sensory-perceptual information), 'semantic knowledge' (knowledge acquired through education and culturally-based experiences), and 'phonological decoding' (grapheme-phoneme processing essential for sounding-out words). 'Perceptual-motor speed' and 'perceptual attention' were most negatively associated with age, whereas 'semantic knowledge' and 'phonological decoding' were most resistant to aging. 'Semantic knowledge' showed the greatest dependence on demographic background, including education and ethnicity. Gender differences in cognitive performances were negligible across all domains except 'phonological decoding' with women slightly outperforming men. The original HRB contributed four neurocognitive domains, the eHRB expansion three domains, and the Wechsler scales one additional domain but with restructuring of verbal factors. Eight neurocognitive domains underlie performance of healthy cognitive individuals during comprehensive neuropsychological assessment. These domains serve as framework for understanding the constructs measured by commonly-used neuropsychological tests and may represent the structure of neurocognition.

Preliminary evidence concerning the pattern and magnitude of cognitive dysfunction in major depressive disorder using cogstate measures

BackgroundCognitive deficits are common in individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD), and are associated with treatment non-responsiveness and poorer functional outcomes. Characterization of the nature and magnitude of deficits in this population has been limited in part by lack of brief, practical, and well-validated assessment measures. The goal of this study was to use a brief, practical, and repeatable computerized cognitive test battery from Cogstate to examine differences in cognitive functioning between individuals with MDD and healthy controls. MethodsForty participants (22 healthy controls (HCs), 18 with MDD) completed a battery of six cognitive measures, as well as measures of intellectual functioning (intellect) and depressive symptom severity. A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was conducted to compare cognitive test performance across groups while controlling for intellect. ResultsIndividuals with MDD had lower full-scale IQ scores on average, and performed worse on measures of visual attention (d=1.04), verbal learning (d=1.22) and memory (d=1.22), and visuospatial problem solving (d=0.80) than HCs after adjustment for differences in intellect. Psychomotor speed, visual memory, and working memory did not differ between groups. ConclusionsCogstate measures appear to be sensitive in assessing deficits in attention, verbal learning and memory, and executive function in individuals with MDD. Further research will be useful in establishing the utility of Cogstate measures for standard use in research and clinical practice.

Cognitive and psychosocial function in retired professional hockey players

Background and ObjectiveThe relationship between repeated concussions and neurodegenerative disease has received significant attention, particularly research in postmortem samples. Our objective was to characterise retired professional ice hockey players’ cognitive...

The Impact of Creative Construction Tasks on Visuospatial Information Processing and Problem Solving

The Impact of Creative Construction Tasks on Visuospatial Information Processing and Problem Solving

A comparison of the neuropsychological profiles of people living in squalor without hoarding to those living in squalor associated with hoarding.

Squalor affects 1 in 1000 older people and is regarded as a secondary condition to other primary disorders such as dementia, intellectual impairment and alcohol abuse. Squalor frequently is associated with hoarding behaviour. We compared the neuropsychological profile of people living in squalor associated with hoarding to those presenting with squalor only. This study is a retrospective case series of hospital inpatient and community healthcare services of 69 people living in squalor (49 from aged care, 16 from aged psychiatry, 3 from acute medical and 1 from a memory clinic). Forty per cent had co-morbid hoarding behaviours. The main outcomes were neuropsychologists' opinions of domain-specific cognitive impairment. The squalor-hoarding group (M age 75.8, SD = 6.9,) was significantly older (p < 0.05) than the squalor-only group (M age 69.9 years, SD = 13.1), significantly more likely to have vascular or Alzheimer's type neurodegeneration (p < 0.05) and significantly less likely to have alcohol-related impairment (p < 0.05). Chi-square analyses revealed significantly greater rates of impairment for the squalor-only group (p < 0.05) in visuospatial reasoning, abstraction, planning, organisation, problem solving and mental flexibility, compared with the squalor-hoarding group. Logistic regression analysis indicated that impaired mental flexibility was a significant predictor and strongly indicated squalor only (odds ratio = 0.07; 95% confidence interval: 0.01-0.82). Preliminary evidence suggests that squalor associated with hoarding may have distinct neuropsychological features compared against squalor only. Future work should be conducted using a larger sample and a common neuropsychological battery to better understand the deficits associated with hoarding-related squalor. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The multiple validities of neuropsychological assessment.

This article discusses construct and criterion validity of neuropsychological tests, as well as assessment validity, which allows determination of whether an individual examinee is producing valid test results. Factor analyses identify 6 domains of abilities. Tests of learning and memory and processing speed are most sensitive to presence of brain dysfunction in both traumatic brain injury (TBI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Tests of processing speed, working memory, verbal symbolic functions, and visuoperceptual and visuospatial judgment and problem solving are sensitive to the severity of TBI and AD, as well as to the functional consequences of these disorders, including ability to work, financial and medical decision-making capacities, and driving ability. Unilateral hemisphere stroke allows study of impairment in sensorimotor skills and lateralized neuropsychological abilities, as well as the moderating effects of aphasia and neglect on test performance. Assessment validity is determined by performance validity tests, measuring whether an examinee is providing an accurate measure of their actual level of ability, and symptom validity tests, measuring whether an examinee is providing an accurate report of their actual symptom experience. A core neuropsychological battery is described that includes tests with established construct and criterion validity, and assessment validity, for comprehensive evidence-based evaluation.

Measuring fluid intelligence at age four

Individual differences in the broad ability dimension General fluid intelligence (Gf) are typically assessed with visuospatial problem solving tasks, and particularly so among young children. Such tests may, however, contribute construct-irrelevant variance due to the figural content of the tasks. The main aim of the study is, therefore, to investigate if measures of working memory capacity can add to the measurement of Gf. A sample of 364 children aged four were given a test-battery which included 10 tests designed to measure different aspects of Gf: three visuospatial problem solving tests, two visual short-term memory (STM) tests, two verbal STM tests, and three verbal tests of working memory capacity. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that an oblique model with four factors fitted the data well, as did a bifactor model with a general factor, along with verbal and visual modality factors. The bifactor model was the preferred solution, and it was concluded that the general factor in this model represents Gf. It was also observed that the visuospatial problem solving tests were influenced by both Gf and the visual modality factor, the latter contributing construct-irrelevant variance to the intended measurement of Gf.

Cognitive Impairment after Severe Traumatic Brain Injury, Clinical Course and Impact on Outcome: A Swedish-Icelandic Study.

Objective. To assess the clinical course of cognitive and emotional impairments in patients with severe TBI (sTBI) from 3 weeks to 1 year after trauma and to study associations with outcomes at 1 year. Methods. Prospective, multicenter, observational study of sTBI in Sweden and Iceland. Patients aged 18–65 years with acute Glasgow Coma Scale 3–8 were assessed with the Barrow Neurological Institute Screen for Higher Cerebral Functions (BNIS) and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). Outcome measures were Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended (GOSE) and Rancho Los Amigos Cognitive Scale-Revised (RLAS-R). Results. Cognition was assessed with the BNIS assessed for 42 patients out of 100 at 3 weeks, 75 patients at 3 months, and 78 patients at 1 year. Cognition improved over time, especially from 3 weeks to 3 months. The BNIS subscales “orientation” and “visuospatial and visual problem solving” were associated with the GOSE and RLAS-R at 1 year. Conclusion. Cognition seemed to improve over time after sTBI and appeared to be rather stable from 3 months to 1 year. Since cognitive function was associated with outcomes, these results indicate that early screening of cognitive function could be of importance for rehabilitation planning in a clinical setting.