Virtual Loop Research Articles

A novel class of non-Gaussian system performance assessment and controller parameter tuning methods

Traditional variance-based control performance assessment (CPA) and controller parameter tuning (CPT) methods tend to ignore non-Gaussian external disturbances. To address this limitation, this study proposes a novel class of CPA and CPT methods for non-Gaussian single-input single-output systems, denoted as data Gaussianization (inverse) transformation methods. The idea of quantile transformation is used to transform the non-Gaussian data with the goal of maximizing mutual information into virtual Gaussian data. In addition, optimal system data for the virtual loop are mapped back to the actual non-Gaussian system using quantile inverse transformation. Furthermore, a CARMA model-based recursive extended least square algorithm and a CARMA model-based least absolute deviation iterative algorithm are used to identify virtual Gaussian and non-Gaussian system process models, respectively, while implementing the CPT. Finally, a unified framework is proposed for the CPA and CPT of a non-Gaussian control system. The simulation results demonstrate that the proposed strategy can provide a consistent benchmark judgment criterion (threshold) for different non-Gaussian noises, and the tuned controller parameters have good performance.

A modified droop-based decentralized control strategy for accurate power sharing in a PV-based islanded AC microgrid

This paper introduces a novel droop-based decentralized control scheme to address the power-sharing challenges within a PV-fed islanded AC microgrid. This novel approach integrates both conventional (P-f/Q-V) and virtual impedance concepts to optimize and manage the precise distribution of active and reactive power among parallel operating inverters posing a significant research challenge. The conventional droop control methods encounter limitations such as voltage and frequency deviations and inaccuracies in power-sharing due to line impedance disparities. To overcome these limitations, the proposed solution integrates an enhanced virtual impedance control loop alongside the conventional control loop (P-f/Q-V). The efficacy of this approach is showcased through simulations conducted using the OPAL-RT OP4510 simulator within the MATLAB/Simulink platform. The Real-time simulation outcomes confirm the efficiency of the suggested control strategy, guaranteeing precise distribution of both active and reactive power while upholding stable voltage and frequency profiles within the system.

A Mathematical Framework for Simultaneous Voltage and Frequency Regulation in Distributed Generator (DG) Grid-Interfaced Systems

Recent advancements in distributed generation (DG) systems interfaced with microgrids necessitate robust regulatory mechanisms to manage inherent power fluctuations, particularly from renewable sources like photovoltaics. These fluctuations can significantly impact the stability and efficiency of microgrids. This paper introduces a novel mathematical framework for simultaneous voltage and frequency regulation, aimed at addressing power quality and stability challenges in DG-grid interfaced systems. Utilizing a combination of algebraic topology and dynamical systems theory, we develop a model that incorporates an adaptive virtual frequency-impedance control loop. This mathematical approach allows for the analytical examination of the stability properties of the system and the design of control strategies that guarantee optimal operational thresholds. We extend the conventional droop control mechanisms with a rigorously defined Simultaneous Voltage and Frequency Correction Scheme (SVFCS), providing a theoretical underpinning that supports experimental observations. The efficacy of the proposed model is validated through numerical simulations that demonstrate adherence to the IEEE 519 standard, ensuring reduced harmonic distortion and enhanced system reliability. Our results highlight the potential for these mathematical methods to provide foundational insights into the control and optimization of microgrid operations.

Adaptive low voltage crossing strategy for symmetrical faults of networked inverters

Abstract Due to the inability of grid-following control methods to compensate for the comprehensive reduction in system inertia, strength, and short-circuit capacity caused by the decreased proportion of synchronous machines, the grid exhibits insufficient resilience to disturbances, leading to severe stability risks in terms of rotor angle, frequency, and voltage. Grid-forming inverters have emerged to address this issue. During symmetrical faults, the low-voltage ride-through of grid-forming inverters often involves freezing the reactive power loop, resulting in a direct output of higher voltage and reactive current. However, an increase in reactive power command leads to a sharp rise in the internal potential magnitude of grid-forming inverters. Upon clearance of the grid fault, the excessively high internal potential may cause a rapid, short-term increase in terminal voltage, potentially resulting in overvoltage, which is detrimental to the operation of grid-connected equipment. In response to this issue, this paper proposes an adaptive low-voltage ride-through control strategy for grid-forming inverters under symmetrical faults controlled by a virtual synchronous machine control method. Initially, a virtual synchronous machine control model is established. Limiting current is achieved through the construction of a fixed virtual impedance loop. The issues associated with fixed virtual impedance current limiting are analyzed, leading to the proposal of an adaptive virtual impedance control strategy. Finally, the feasibility of the proposed method is verified through simulation experiments.

A metaheuristic algorithm for regulating virtual inertia of a standalone microgrid incorporating electric vehicles

AbstractModern electrical networks, particularly microgrids, have seen a sharp rise in acquiring non‐conventional sources. The inertia of the microgrid decreases drastically because RESs have been used in place of traditional synchronous generators. The reduced inertia negatively impacts the dynamics and performance of the microgrid with RESs, which decreases the microgrid's stability, especially in operation on an island. The primary purpose of this research study is to enhance the dynamic security of an island microgrid by merging an electric vehicle with a frequency control technique based on virtual inertia control. A Proportional Integral Derivative Filter Constant (PIDFN) controller optimally created using the Modified Differential Evolution (MDE) method served as the foundation for control in the virtual inertia control loop. The effectiveness of the MDE‐based PIDFN controller was examined considering the diverse operational scenarios are compared and contrasted with those of traditional methods Differential Evolution (DE) and Teaching Learning Based Optimization (TLBO)‐based PIDFN controllers. Real‐time wind and solar power statistics and random load fluctuations were incorporated to provide realistic simulation settings. The outcomes demonstrate that the MDE‐based PIDFN controller performs better in reference frequency tracking and reducing frequency disturbances than the other optimization strategies.

An improved design for virtual synchronous generator control loop based on synergy theory

Virtual synchronous generator (VSG) technology has achieved some results in distributed generation networks and enhanced system stability. For problems that may occur in the system due to ignoring parameter linkages, this paper designs a synergistic controller that establishes the connection between the active frequency and the reactive voltage control loop based on synergy theory. As the output of the synergetic controller, the derived control law u is added to the power frequency control in the form of negative feedback. Two disturbance forms, a step disturbance, and a three-phase short-circuit fault, are set up. The conventional droop control and synergetic droop control results are compared using a MATLAB simulation system. Then, the system parameter variations were studied and analyzed, and the sensitivity of the control system with different values of parameters K1, K2, and K3 in the case of a three-phase short circuit was analyzed, which provides a reference guide for selecting parameters in later control optimization. Finally, the control effectiveness of a multi-machine VSG system was tested. The simulation results show that the proposed method has a pronounced effect on making the system stabilize quickly, which illustrates the effectiveness of this technique.

Soft Photon Theorem in QCD with Massless Quarks.

Working to all orders in dimensionally regularized QCD with massless quarks, we study the radiation of a photon whose energy is much lower than that of external partons. The conventional soft photon theorem receives corrections at leading power in the photon energy, associated with soft virtual loops of massless fermions. These additive corrections give an overall factor times the nonradiative amplitude that is infrared finite and real to all orders in α_{s}. Based on recent calculations of the three-loop soft gluon current, we identify the lowest-order three-loop correction.

A Decentralized Power Management and Sliding Mode Control Strategy for Hybrid AC/DC Microgrids including Renewable Energy Resources

This paper presents a new decentralized robust strategy to improve small and large-signal stability and power-sharing of hybrid AC/DC microgrids and improve its performance for nonlinear and unbalanced loads. In addition to the sliding mode controller for DC/DC converters, for the sake of improving power sharing and regulating active and reactive powers injected by distributed energy resources, and moreover, controlling harmonic and negative-sequence current in the presence of nonlinear and unbalanced loads, two separate controllers for positive sequence power control and negative sequence current control are designed based on the sliding mode control and Lyapunov function theory, respectively. The theoretical concept of the proposed robust control strategy, including mathematical modeling of microgrid components, basic theorems, controller design procedure, and robustness and closed loop stability analysis are outlined. Also, this direct power/current/voltage control scheme is governed by a new hybrid AC/DC hierarchical control scheme that exploits a harmonic virtual impedance loop and voltage compensation scheme. To show the effectiveness of the proposed robust control scheme, offline time-domain simulations are done on a hybrid AC/DC wind/photovoltaic/fuel-cell microgrid with nonlinear and unbalanced loads in MATLAB/Simulink environment, and the results are experimentally verified by OPAL-RT real-time digital simulator.

Design, Modeling, and Validation of Grid-Forming Inverters for Frequency Synchronization and Restoration

This paper focuses on the modeling, analysis, and design of grid-forming (GFM) inverter-based microgrids (MGs). It starts with the development of a mathematical model for three-phase voltage source inverters (VSI). The voltage and current controllers consist of two feedback loops: an outer feedback loop of the capacitance-voltage and an inner feedback loop of the output inductance current. The outer voltage loop is employed to enhance the controller’s response time. The inner current loop is used to provide active damping for the resonance created by the LCL filter. A two-layer control scheme is adopted for the GFM inverter control. The primary decentralized control uses droop control and virtual impedance loops to share active and reactive power. Simultaneously, the centralized secondary control addresses frequency and amplitude deviations induced by the droop control. Additionally, a synchronization loop is proposed for seamless reconnection of GFM inverters to the MG and to connect the GFM-controlled MG to the main grid. It has the advantage that the inverter operates in GFM mode even after the synchronization has occurred. The simulation results have shown that the voltage controller ensures a 0.005 s settling time and maintains the steady-state error at its minimum value of 0.1 V. Similarly, the current controller ensures a 0.006 s settling time with a 10−5 steady-state error. The system with the designed controller has a low total harmonic distortion (THD) of 1.46% and improved power quality of the output voltage. Furthermore, a quick restoration time is observed during load steps and tripping events, with a restoration time of 1 s with 10−10 steady-state error. Synchronization is achieved within 0.8 s for the incoming inverters and requires 3 s to synchronize the MG with the main grid, maintaining a steady-state error of 10−9.

Power decoupling control of paralleled virtual synchronous generators based on virtual complex impedance

With the high ratio of distributed generation (DG) linked to power system via converters, power system stability is degraded in terms of inertia and damping. In recent years, the virtual synchronous generator (VSG) has become a potential solving method to deal with these issues. However, the power coupling problem exists in the traditional VSG control method, which severely impacts the VSG power control performance. The impedance characteristics of the transmission line are closely related to the effect of the power decoupling control of VSGs. To solve the voltage sag and poor robustness issues resulting from traditional virtual impedance control, a virtual complex impedance power decoupling and sharing control strategy for VSGs based on coordinate transformation is proposed. Combining the characteristics of traditional virtual impedance control and virtual power control, the power coupling mechanism in parallel VSGs caused by line impedance is analyzed. The virtual complex impedance control loop is introduced in VSG control to realize the matching of the equivalent line impedance and the precise decoupling of VSG power output. Then the load can be accurately allocated in the light of the proportion of VSG capacity.

Virtual inertia analysis of photovoltaic energy storage systems based on reduced-order model

The problem of non-ideal inertia of the photovoltaic energy storage system (PVESS) may occur due to unreasonable voltage control parameters. In response to this issue, this paper establishes an equivalent reduced-order model (EROM) for PVESS. This EROM considers the current control loop, voltage control loop and the virtual inertia control loop based on low-pass filter. This low-pass filter can effectively enhance the system’s virtual inertia. Since the output impedance of this EROM can visually reflect the external characteristics of the virtual inertia control loop, it is suitable for inertia analysis of PVESS. Furthermore, the impact of voltage control parameters and low-pass filter bandwidth on the system’s inertia is discussed from the perspective of the frequency response of the output impedance. Finally, the switch model of the PVESS is built on the RT-BOX hardware-in-the-loop experimental platform. The validity of the EROM and theoretical analysis is verified by several sets of experimental results.

The Doubly-fed Wind Power Generator Virtual Synchronous Control

Given the high proportion of wind power frequency/voltage stability problems, the power system based on synchronized coordinates (DFIG) mathematical model of doubly-fed motor, studies a current source containing inertial link type wind turbine virtual synchronous control strategy, and the virtual synchronous control loop and the current control design of the inner ring. Established in the Matlab/Simulink simulation model of doubly-fed wind power generator, the virtual synchronous generator realized virtual synchronous generator inertia. Simulation results confirm the validity of the theoretical analysis and the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy.

Grid-Forming Controller Based on Virtual Admittance for Power Converters Working in Weak Grids

The high penetration of distributed energy resources, based on power electronics, is giving rise to stability issues in the electrical network, as initially those plants were not required to provide either voltage or frequency support. Due to this, TSOs and DSOs have set new requirements for them to provide grid support functionalities. This paper presents a grid forming control strategy for power converters which is based on a virtual admittance loop. By means of this strategy it is possible to use a conventional current control based inverter, just adding this outer loop. By doing so, the converter is not only able to perform current control, but also frequency and voltage support functionalities. In this work, the proposed control is described and analyzed, checking as well its stability boundaries. After this analysis, the results obtained in a hardware-in-the-loop platform, where faulty scenarios, islanding or black start conditions, will be shown. Finally, the results obtained in an experimental true scale workbench will show its effectiveness for providing such services.

Adaptive Damping Control to Enhance Small-Signal Stability of DC Microgrids

This paper proposes an adaptive active control approach for damping the low-frequency oscillations in a DC microgrid (DC-MG). The DC-MG is comprised of hybrid power sources (HPSs) formed by a parallel set of supercapacitor modules and photovoltaic systems. The HPS controller includes a multi-loop voltage controller for adjusting the DC-MG voltage and a virtual impedance loop for damping current oscillations. The virtual impedance loop is augmented to the inner loop of the voltage controller. An adaptive tuning strategy is developed to adjust the damping coefficient of the virtual impedance loop optimally. In the tuning process, small-signal analysis is used to determine an initial adjustment for the damping coefficient. Subsequently, an approach based on intelligent neural network is intended to provide accurate online correction of the damping coefficient, which passes the dependency of the converter control system on the operating point conditions and accommodates different operation conditions. A sensitivity analysis is also conducted to investigate the effects of the system parameters on the HPS stability. Moreover, a mesh analysis is carried out to examine the stability of low-frequency modes of the whole DC-MG using the proposed control scheme. Case studies are conducted to demonstrate the performance of the proposed control strategy, and the analysis results are verified by Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) setup using OPAL-RT (OP5600) and dSPACE (DS1202) simulators.

Distributed Power Sharing Control Based on Adaptive Virtual Impedance in Seaport Microgrids With Cold Ironing

In a seaport microgrid (SMG), power sharing among distributed generation (DG) units is hindered by power coupling, line changes as well as frequent power fluctuations caused by ship charging and discharging through cold ironing, which in turn threatens system stability and inverter security. This paper proposes a delay-tolerant distributed adaptive virtual impedance control strategy for assigned active and reactive power sharing, so as to suppress the circulating current among DGs. Firstly, the nonlinear impedance-power droop equations (IPDEs) are derived to actively update the resistive and inductive components of virtual impedance, which can accommodate changes in line structure and output power. Secondly, by means of low-bandwidth communication with quantized data and time delay, the desired power terms derived from practical consensus protocols are fed into the IPDEs, for which the proposed scheme gives a quantitative maximum tolerable communication delay with respect to power sharing accuracy. Thirdly, considering the voltage drop caused by virtual impedance, inspired by traditional synchronous generators, we design a virtual impedance loop based on virtual damping and inertia to preserve voltage dynamics. Finally, an SMG containing four DG units is simulated to verify the effectiveness of the proposed strategy on both active and reactive power sharing.

가변속 DFIM 시스템의 가상관성 모델링

The variable-speed DFIM system is a next-generation energy storage technology in which a rotor is connected to a back-to-back converter to adjust the active and reactive power of the device to compensate for the output variability of renewable energy sources. However, general DFIM has less inertia than synchronous generators to support the system when a disturbance occurs in the system, and requires an active technology to assist it. In this paper, a steam turbine governor with droop characteristics was modeled to explain the power control of the existing variable speed DFIM and simulate the drop in system frequency, and a virtual inertia controller was used for the variable speed DFIM system. The current and active power of the DFIM and the frequency change is compared by distinguishing the before and after using the virtual inertia. DFIM, which operates as a variable load after using virtual inertia, reduces the rotor current and reduces the active power absorbed from the system from 1p.u to 0.78p.u by using the virtual inertial active power. Accordingly, it was confirmed that the rotor speed was variable, and it was confirmed that the virtual inertia loop using kinetic energy operated effectively. When disturbance occurs in the system frequency due to the dropout of the power source of the system, the frequency nadir point drops to 48.5Hz. When the system frequency inertia was supported using virtual inertia, the frequency nadir increased from 48.5Hz to 48.76Hz, confirming that the system frequency nadir was improved by mimicking the inertial characteristics of the synchronous generator even during pump operation.

Resilient virtual synchronous generator approach using DC-link capacitor energy for frequency support of interconnected renewable power systems

Modern interconnected power systems with many renewable energy sources (RESs) are more susceptible to disturbances than conventional power systems because they lack the inertia constant. Therefore, this study presents an advanced frequency control strategy for interconnected power systems considering high RESs penetration relying on the virtual inertia control (VIC) strategy-based high voltage direct current (HVDC) link, thus improving the dynamic frequency performance of future power systems. The HVDC link has been used as a DC capacitor which stores the electrostatic energy. This stored energy can supply the earliest active power support in automatic generation control system operation. Moreover, this paper develops the conventional VIC strategy based on the HVDC link by considering the dynamic behavior of a virtual rotor that mimics the inertia and damping properties of actual synchronous machines, thus stabilizing future renewable power systems. Also, this paper proposes a novel frequency control scheme based on the inertia emulation-based HVDC link and a virtual synchronous generator, which mimics the virtual rotor and virtual frequency control loops, to improve further the frequency regulation of low-inertia modern interconnected power systems. The parameters of the virtual synchronous generator scheme are optimally adjusted utilizing particle swarm optimization. The utility and superiority of the proposed VIC strategies based on the HVDC link are confirmed by contrasting them with the conventional VIC strategy relying on the HVDC link in the studied interconnected power system against various load/renewables interruptions, uncertainties, and physical restrictions. MATLAB/Simulink® software was used to simulate the results of the investigated system.

Interaction analysis and enhanced design of grid-forming control with hybrid synchronization and virtual admittance loops

Interaction analysis and enhanced design of grid-forming control with hybrid synchronization and virtual admittance loops

Power Sharing in Three-Level NPC Inverter Based Three-Phase Four-Wire Islanding Microgrids With Unbalanced Loads

The droop-based control schemes are widely used for power-sharing and control of the isolated microgrids. The conventional droop control scheme with inner current and voltage controllers can work effectively under ideal voltage. However, the existence of unbalance tends its performance to worsen. This paper aims to propose an enhanced droop control method to improve the power-sharing, and maintain the distributed generators’ (DGs) terminal voltages and the system frequency under the balanced as well as unbalanced loads. The enhancements of the proposed control scheme include the droop controller, inner current and voltage controller, and virtual impedance loop. The proposed virtual impedance deals with the accurate sharing of powers in the case of unequal line impedance and the control of zero sequence current. Moreover, to enable the proposed control to compensate for the unbalance, three-level neutral point clamped (NPC) inverters are used to form a three-phase four-wire microgrid. With this control scheme, the voltage unbalance factors (VUFs) of the DGs’ terminal voltages are reduced from 4% to less than 1%, negative sequence reactive powers, which are also an indication of unbalance, have been reduced significantly, and the system frequency is maintained within the standard permissible limit of 2.5%. Furthermore, a local load controller is also proposed to control the reactive loading of the DGs when they have local loads supplied from their terminals. The investigations have been carried out under simulation as well as lab-based environments to validate the efficacy of the proposed control method.

NOC-Based Multiple Low-Order Harmonic Currents Suppression Method

In a microgrid system, the dc bus contains a significant amount of undesired low-order harmonic currents (LHC) when multiple converters of various types and with nonlinear behavior are connected. To address the issue, this article proposes an iterative control strategy based on a negative-order capacitor (NOC) branch on dc bus. In the proposed method, the reference voltage of decoupling capacitors in the NOC circuit is obtained based on the dc bus current. The voltage difference between the two decoupling capacitors is taken as the control objective, leaving little dc difference between the two capacitors and resulting in maximum LHC suppression ability. To refactor the reference voltage, a singularity points hunting strategy is proposed, helping to reduce the current spike. More importantly, the iterative control strategy is employed in the virtual current loop, decreasing steady-state error from device deviation or control deviation. Finally, an 800 W prototype is built to validate the effectiveness of the proposed method.