Investigation of the influence of visual attention span and a range of literacy-related variables on writing (spelling) to dictation in Mandarin-speaking children aged 10 to 12years.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Specific Learning Difficulties (SLD) are both associated with attentional and cognitive difficulties. This study examined the extent to which the cognitive impairments could be consequences of elevated levels of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. Secondary analysis was conducted on data from four groups selected from the Centre for Attention, Learning, and Memory, a neurodivergent cohort of children aged 5 to 18 years with a mean age of 9 years : children with ADHD only (n = 70), learning difficulties only (n = 406), ADHD with learning difficulties (n = 128), and a comparison group (n = 166). Covariance analyses examined whether any differences in basic cognitive skills and higher executive functions between the neurodivergent and comparison groups could result from variations in inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. Irrespective of ADHD status, children with learning difficulties had low scores in short-term memory, working memory, sustained attention, processing speed, set sequencing, and set shifting. These cognitive deficits largely persisted when inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity were covaried. In contrast, the ADHD only group performed at age-appropriate levels on measures of verbal short-term memory, verbal and visuospatial working memory, processing speed, and sustained attention. Their difficulties with set sequencing and visuospatial short-term memory were accounted for by inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity, whereas their challenges with set shifting were independent of these attentional behaviors. The results point to distinct neurodevelopmental pathways to cognitive functioning for children with learning difficulties and those with ADHD. The independence of learning-related cognitive skills from levels of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity in children with learning difficulties either with or without ADHD suggests they represent the core deficits that underlie their learning difficulties. The limited cognitive challenges of children with ADHD without learning difficulties may be consequences of their elevated levels of attentional behaviors. Understanding the cognitive and learning profiles of children with ADHD and learning difficulties vital for identifying optimal intervention and support strategies that address their individual needs.

Introduction: Speech Sound Disorder (SSD) negatively affects children’s phonological and cognitive processes, posing risks to academic development. Accordingly, identifying risk factors is essential for effective intervention. This study investigated associations among the phonological loop (PL), receptive language, and nonverbal intelligence (NVI) in children aged 4-6 years with SSD, and examined whether these relationships vary by SSD severity and age. Method: This quantitative study employed a cross-sectional screening design. Data were collected from 62 children aged 4-6 years with SSD using the Turkish Articulation and Phonology Test (TAPT), the Turkish Early Language Development Test (TELDT), the Turkish Nonword Repetition Test (TNWR-T), and Raven’s Colored Progressive Matrices (RCPM). Differences in TNWR-T scores by SSD severity and age were analyzed with the Kruskal–Wallis H test. The association between TELDT and TNWR-T scores was examined using Spearman’s rho, and the association between TNWR-T and RCPM was assessed using Pearson’s correlation coefficient. Findings: Findings on the linkage between language and phonological skills in children with SSD are mixed in the literature. Consistent with prior work, the present results support an association between nonword repetition performance and nonverbal intelligence. As in other studies, SSD severity was related to short-term verbal memory performance, while age showed no significant effect. Discussion: Findings regarding the relationship between language and phonological skills in children with SSD remain mixed in the literature. The present study adds to this body of work by showing results consistent with prior research linking TNWR-T performance to nonverbal intelligence. Consistent with other studies, SSD severity was found to affect short-term verbal memory performance, whereas age did not exert a significant effect. Conclusions and Recommendations: These results highlight the importance of including nonverbal cognitive skills in the assessment of children with SSD. They also suggest that the phonological loop should be considered by speech–language therapists in evaluating risk for reading difficulties. The finding that differences emerge by SSD severity but not by age underscores the need for early support of phonological skills to help prevent later literacy problems.

Reports of patients with impaired verbal short-term memory are central to the debate of whether there are independent short-term stores or whether immediate repetition is supported by activated long-term memory. Patients with selective impairments of verbal short-term memory support models with independent buffers. However, it has been argued that these patients were too rare to provide reliable data. Second, it has been suggested that these patients might suffer from subtle impairments of word perception, comprehension or production which previous studies had failed to notice. Ten neurological patients were assessed. Nine participants had impaired immediate spans for digits, letters and words whilst having unimpaired word perception, comprehension and production. Another patient exhibited better preserved immediate repetition despite severely impaired word perception, comprehension and production. This double dissociation provides unequivocal evidence for the functional independence of short- and long-term memory. The size of the present group of STM participants, the largest to date, makes it impossible to ignore data from neuropsychological patients.

Temporal-sampling theory suggests that lexical stress discrimination plays an important role in language disorders. This study explored whether this is also the case in Down syndrome (DS) and, particularly, whether lexical stress discrimination could contribute to accounting for the phonological and grammatical skills of teenagers with this syndrome. Lexical stress discrimination, along with a range of phonological and grammatical skills, was assessed in a group of 27 teenagers with DS. The differential predictive role of lexical stress discrimination in phonology and grammar was studied, taking into account the potential effect of other relevant variables, namely, hearing thresholds, verbal short-term memory, chronological age and non-verbal cognition. Regression models revealed that, for the phonological measurements, only verbal short-term memory emerged as a significant predictor. For grammatical integration and sentence repetition, both verbal short-term memory and lexical stress discrimination played a predictive role. For grammar comprehension, lexical stress discrimination was the only significant predictor. The results regarding grammar are consistent with a temporal-sampling framework. Given the observed predictive role of lexical stress discrimination in the grammatical skills of teenagers with DS, this prosodic skill could potentially be examined and incorporated as a prospective target in intervention programmes.

Short-term memory (STM) and verbal working memory (VWM) are well-established contributors to reading comprehension (RC), yet evidence suggests they are distinct cognitive constructs, differing primarily in their reliance on attentional control. This study explored the mediating role of sustained attention (SA) in the STM–VWM–RC relationship. Participants were 106 fourth-grade Turkish students (ages 8–9) from similar socioeconomic backgrounds. RC was measured using curriculum-based assessments, STM via a number sequence task, VWM via a nonword repetition list, and SA via the Bourdon Attention Test. Structural equation modeling revealed that both STM and VWM directly predicted RC, while SA was a strong predictor of RC and mediated the effects of both memory variables—partially for STM and fully for VWM. The model accounted for 36% of SA variance and 35% of RC variance. These findings reinforce the conceptual distinction between STM and VWM and highlight attention’s pivotal role in comprehension processes. Implications point to classroom interventions that actively strengthen STM, VWM, and SA to enhance reading comprehension, offering educators practical pathways to address cognitive underpinnings of literacy development.

Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) and Dyslexia frequently co-occur. Many studies suggest that children with Dyslexia may also struggle with oral language skills, while those with DLD may also face challenges in word decoding. Both groups of children typically exhibit deficits in phonological processing [phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming (RAN), verbal short-term memory (VSTM)] and verbal working memory (VWM). Despite the increasing number of comparative studies, few have systematically examined these overlaps in children at the early stages of literacy acquisition, and few studies have systematically assessed all oral language subsystems. This study investigates: (a) differences and similarities among children with DLD, children at Risk of Dyslexia (RfD), and typically developing children (TD) in phonological processing (phonological awareness—implicit and explicit—VSTM, RAN), VWM, oral language, and word decoding; (b) patterns of performance across groups; and (c) correlations between phonological processing and VWM skills with oral language and word decoding. The participants were 45 first graders (Mage = 6.8), equally divided into three groups (DLD, RfD, and TD children). Both special groups (DLD, RfD) performed significantly worse than the TD group across nearly all measurements. DLD children showed pronounced oral language and VSTM deficits, while RfD children primarily struggled with decoding and explicit phonological awareness. Group-specific correlations emerged. The findings are discussed in light of the theoretical models of the relationship between DLD and Dyslexia taking into account the specific developmental stage.

BackgroundPeople with Williams syndrome (WS) have strong verbal short-term memory but challenged verbal long-term memory given their advantageous lexical semantics.AimsThis study aimed to evaluate the memory of people with WS using virtual reality (VR) to determine the root of challenges associated with virtual navigation.MethodsPeople with WS (n = 20, chronological age [CA] = 12.5, mental age [MA] = 8.9) were recruited. Four typically developing control groups participated in a navigation task in a shopping setting: CA-matched (n = 20, mean = 12.5), MA-matched (n = 20, mean = 8.8), the 5th graders (n = 20, mean = 10.3), and college students (n = 20, CS, mean = 20.2). Fourteen indices were measured and error patterns were analyzed across groups.ResultsBased on the shopping task, if a participant did not follow the instructions and/or target list, an error was recorded and reported using the software. People with WS shopped the longest and erred the most. The CA group shopped longer and erred more than the MA group; the 5th graders were similar to the CS group. People with WS replaced and confused more than controls. Further analyses revealed atypical processing of the semantic features of the target items in people with WS. As control groups, the practice effect emerged through pause time and duration in people with WS.ConclusionThe findings revealed that people with WS show bizarre lexical semantic knowledge, which may be an influential factor in impaired long-term memory and sentence comprehension. The practice effect seems to be an important factor in the rehabilitation potential of people with WS.ImplicationsVR technology could be a promising tool for assessing memory and cognitive abilities in people with WS. With computerized-assisted technological advancements in training, people with WS can improve their long-term memory and sentence comprehension abilities with a specific design and aim for the target issue.

Background/Objectives: The study aimed to investigate how cognitive variables (performance IQ, verbal short-term memory, working memory, and ADHD symptomatology) impact lexical representations in children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder (HF-ASD). Methods: Participants were two groups (n1 = n2 = 20) of monolingual Greek-speaking children, aged 7 to 12 years, with and without HF-ASD matched in age, gender, and cognitive skills. Results: Overall, the HF-ASD group had more immature lexical representations than the control group, even though the two groups were similar in naming. In both groups, naming was correlated moderately with verbal short-term memory but only age predicted significantly semantic knowledge. In the ASD group, a bilateral predictive relationship was revealed between output motor programming skills and stored phonological knowledge, supporting theoretical assumptions of the psycholinguistic model of speech. Finally, a different pattern of interrelations was observed between cognitive and lexical variables in the two groups. Conclusions: The findings of the current study indicate that ASD children may map and process new vocabulary differently compared to typically developing peers.

ObjectivesMesial temporal lobe epilepsy (MTLE) is a common neurological disorder, with memory impairment being one of its typical symptoms. Most previous studies have focused on assessing declarative memory directly related to hippocampal functions, but emerging data suggest a decline in the efficiency of other types of memory as well. The aim of this study was to comprehensively assess various types of memory and analyze the relationship between memory performance and the volume of selected gray matter structures.MethodsIn total, 21 patients with left-MTLE and 28 age- and education-matched healthy individuals underwent neuropsychological assessment using the Wechsler Memory Scale IV (WMS-IV) to evaluate memory functioning. Magnetic resonance imaging was also conducted to assess gray matter volume and structure in all participants.ResultsCompared with healthy controls, patients with left-MTLE showed significantly reduced performance in short-term verbal and visual memory, long-term verbal and visual memory, and working memory. Volumetric analysis revealed differences in gray matter volume between groups, with some structures being smaller and others larger in the patient group. Numerous correlations were found between WMS-IV scores and the volume of specific brain regions. Significant associations were observed both ipsilateral and contralateral to the epileptic focus, involving regions such as the cerebellar cortex, cingulate gyrus, insula, thalamus, and pallidum.ConclusionThis study expands our understanding of the memory profile in patients with MTLE. Neuropsychological testing showed that patients performed worse than controls across all assessed memory domains. Additionally, the study identified a distinct pattern of neuronal abnormalities and brain–behavior correlations. These findings suggest that the extent of structural brain anomalies may be linked to the severity of memory impairment in MTLE, underscoring the complex relationship between neuroanatomy and cognitive function in this population.

ABSTRACT Verbal short-term memory (vSTM) draws on both phonological and lexical-semantic systems. This study examined whether vSTM support from semantic properties – specifically word imageability – varies with phonological ability and whether it endures rapid encoding conditions. Two auditory immediate serial recall (ISR) experiments tested recall for high – and low-imageability word lists in adults with and without developmental dyslexia. In Experiment 1, word imageability effects in standard presentation ISR were robust and equivalent across groups, despite the context of lower nonword recall in dyslexic participants. Experiment 2 used speeded presentation to limit rehearsal and reduce strategic encoding. Imageability effects were still observed, and a moderate association emerged between imageability benefit and nonword recall, which had not been observed with standard rate presentation. However, there remained no group-level differences in word recall. These findings indicate that imageability supports vSTM performance across individuals and task conditions. They do not provide strong evidence for compensatory mechanisms but rather highlight the general stability of semantic support in verbal memory across conditions.

ABSTRACT Background Cognitive models of verbal short-term memory differ considerably with one popular model assuming independent short-term buffers, including the phonological loop, and others conceiving of short-term memory as activated long-term memory. Data from individuals with neuropsychological impairments, particularly phonemic deficits in the context of aphasia, are an important source of evidence to evaluate these different cognitive models. Aims The study used experimental results from an individual with conduction aphasia to evaluate cognitive models of short-term memory. Immediate serial recall tasks involved acoustic, phonological, lexical, and semantic information to varying degrees. Methods The experimental tasks involved oral recall of series of long and short tones, series of digits or words, series of the digits “1” and “0”, as well as the semantic categories of words (animals versus digits) in the correct order. Thirteen age-matched neurotypical control participants provided normative data with which the participant’s results were compared. Outcome The participant was impaired in the serial recall of lists of digits and lists of words. He was, however, unimpaired recalling series of long and short tones, series of “0” and “1”, as well as the semantic categories of words presented in lists. This is incompatible with the phonological loop model which does not distinguish between different verbal information and the varying degrees of phonological and semantic information. In addition, it is argued that within the larger family of psycholinguistic models of verbal short-term memory, one model accounts for the results better than others.

To explore trajectory and sex differences of varied cognitive dimensions over time in the normal aging elderly. The cluster sampling method was used to select a representative community (n = 341). Individuals aged 60 years and above with normal cognitive function were identified (n = 281). One-to-one neuropsychological tests were conducted at baseline and repeated 1 and 5 years later. A mixed linear model was developed to analyze the changes and sex discrepancies in different cognitive dimensions of the elderly based on the scores of the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), and World Health Organization Battery of Cognitive Assessment Instruments for the elderly (WHO-BCAI). When comparing the 1-year follow-up with baseline data, the scores of auditory vocabulary in both men and women had significantly increased (t = -2.52, t = -4.8, p < 0.05), while the Wechsler mapping in women had significantly increased (t = -2.62, p < 0.05). When comparing the 5-year follow-up with baseline data, MMSE (t = 6.38, t = 6.06, p < 0.05) and MoCA (t = 7.34, t = 7.03, p < 0.05) scores had significantly decreased in both groups, the digit span scores had significantly decreased in men (t = 2.67, p < 0.05), and the scores of auditory vocabulary in women had significantly increased (t = -2.54, p < 0.05). When comparing the 5-year follow-up with the 1-year follow-up data, the digit span scores in women had significantly decreased (t = 2.88, p < 0.05), and the Wechsler mapping scores in both groups had significantly decreased (t = 3.68, t = 3.14, p < 0.05). A sex discrepancy emerged in several tests of specific cognitive domains after adjusting for education. At baseline, women outperformed men in auditory vocabulary, associative learning, and delayed recall while men outperformed women in Wechsler mapping. Importantly, auditory vocabulary and Wechsler mapping were better in women and men, respectively, at all visit times. The superiority of associative learning and delayed recall of women shrunk with advancing age. Sex differences in cognitive variation indicated a steeper decline for women in verbal episodic memory, associative memory, and short-term memory. Meanwhile, a sharper deterioration in memory, comprehension and recognition of spatial relationships, and visual structure ability was observed in men. The sex differences in different cognitive dimensions diminished over time.

Verbal short-term memory in developmental dyslexia: The role of the temporoparietal area.

Developmental stuttering is a speech disorder characterized by the repetition, prolongation, and blocking of speech sounds. It has been suggested that a decline in executive function is a background factor for preschool children who stutter. Executive function is defined as “goal-oriented thought, action, and emotion regulation.” At present, there are few previous studies that have comprehensively investigated the subcomponents of executive function in preschool children who stutter through behavioral experiments. We herein conducted age- and gender-matched case–control study to explore the characteristics of the subcomponents of executive function in preschool children who stutter compared with preschool children who do not. Consequently, we found lower performance in verbal and visual working memories in preschool children who stutter. The results of this study indicated that children who stutter show declines not only in verbal short-term memory performance, as has been pointed out in the past, but also in the performance of the entire working memory system, including central executive function.

Do gastrointestinal symptoms influence neurocognitive functioning in COVID-19 patients?

Cognitive impairment (CI) is a common symptom in multiple sclerosis (MS) that significantly impairs quality of life. Severe cognitive impairment with a multidomain phenotype is observed in progressive MS (PMS). Given the limitations of available therapeutic approaches to the treatment of CI in PMS, the investigation of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) for its correction is relevant.Objective: To investigate the safety, tolerability and efficacy of multitarget navigated TMS in PMS with CI. Material and methods. A protocol for multitarget intermittent theta-burst stimulation (iTBS) of the left dorsolateral prefrontal and posterior parietal cortex was developed. Fifteen patients with PMS and CI were enrolled in the study: 8 patients received sham stimulation followed by active iTBS, and 7 patients received only active iTBS. Safety and tolerability were assessed by questionnaires, efficacy by neuropsychological testing and questionnaires on subjective CI and fatigue. Results. No serious adverse events (AEs) or discontinuation of TMS were observed. Mild AEs were recorded during 39.8% of sessions and within 24 hours after 23.3% of sessions, with no statistically significant differences between sham- and active iTBS. Verbal working and short-term memory (p=0.012 and p=0.049) as well as information processing speed (p=0.026), visuospatial perception (p=0.023), subjective CI (p=0.016) and fatigue (p=0.041) improved after the active protocol. Sham-iTBS had no significant effects. Significant differences between the effects of the sham and the active protocol were only observed for verbal working memory (p=0.043). Conclusion. Thus, this pilot study confirmed good safety and tolerability of the TMS protocol in PMS with CI. It was shown that there is a potential efficacy for verbal working and short-term memory, information processing speed, visuospatial perception, subjective CI and fatigue. The efficacy needs to be confirmed in further large studies.

Gifted students with relative reading difficulties often struggle with the discrepancy between their high intelligence and lower-than-expected word-reading level (i.e., discrepant readers). This discrepancy may be a burden and poses specific educational challenges to individual students. To understand their challenges and the nature of their discrepancy, this study examined the cognitive profiles of gifted discrepant readers ( n = 50) compared with gifted (nondiscrepant) readers ( n = 30). A case series analysis mapping weaknesses and strengths on risk factors for dyslexia (phonemic awareness [PA], rapid automatized naming [RAN], and verbal short term memory [VSTM]) showed that both groups displayed largely similar cognitive profiles. A discrepant reading profile seemed to result from the absence of strengths on underlying skills (PA, RAN, VSTM). Hierarchical multiple regression indicated that group (discrepant readers vs. gifted readers) did not moderate the relationship between cognitive factors and word-level reading outcomes. Based on these findings, it is proposed that educational support for gifted discrepant readers might comprise gifted- and needs-based education that focuses on (building) strengths.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of verbal working memory (VWM) interventions on reading speed, accuracy, and comprehension in elementary school students diagnosed with specific learning disabilities (SLD). Given the limited research on the role of VWM in reading performance, this study fills a critical gap in the literature. A pre-test and post-test design was employed, with an experimental group (n = 14) receiving VWM interventions over 4 weeks, while the control group (n = 12) received no intervention. The intervention focused on enhancing VWM and verbal short-term memory (V-STM) through structured cognitive tasks, including rehearsal techniques and phonological loop strengthening activities, delivered over 24 sessions. Results showed that although VWM interventions significantly enhanced VWM capacity (t(24) = 3.39, p < 0.05, d = 1.48), they did not lead to significant improvements in reading speed or accuracy. However, a statistically significant improvement in reading comprehension was observed (p = 0.04, d = 0.92). These findings suggest that while enhancing VWM may not directly improve reading fluency, it can positively affect comprehension. The study highlights the importance of considering VWM in educational interventions targeting reading comprehension and recommends further research into other cognitive and linguistic factors influencing reading speed and accuracy. Additionally, future studies should explore the long-term effects of diverse intervention strategies on reading outcomes.

Early identification of congenital deafness enables early intervention, but evidence on the influence of age at fitting of hearing aids (HAs) or cochlear implants (CIs) on outcomes in school-aged children who are deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) is limited. This study (1) described developmental outcomes and health-related quality of life in DHH children; and (2) examined the relationships among demographic factors, including age at fitting of HAs or CIs, and outcomes. This prospective cohort study included participants in a population-based study who were followed up at 9 years of age. Children who are DHH and who first received hearing habilitation services before 3 years of age from the government-funded national hearing service provider in the states of New South Wales, Victoria, and Southern Queensland in Australia were invited to enroll in the study. At 9 years of age, enrolled children were assessed using standardized measures of language, cognitive abilities, and speech perception. The children also completed questionnaire ratings on their quality of life. Parents provided demographic information about their child, family, and education; and completed ratings on their child's quality of life. Audiological data were retrieved from the client database of the hearing service provider and records held at CI centers. Descriptive statistics were used to report quantitative outcomes. The relationships among demographic characteristics, including age at fitting of HAs or CIs, and children's outcomes were examined using structural equation modeling. A total of 367 children, 178 (48.5%) girls, completed assessments at age 9.4 (SD = 0.3) years. On average, performance was within 1 SD of the normative mean for language, cognitive functioning, and health-related quality of life; but much below norms for speech perception. The modeling result is consistent with verbal short-term memory having a mediating effect on multiple outcomes. Better verbal short-term memory is significantly associated with no additional disabilities, earlier age at CI activation, use of an oral communication mode in early intervention, and higher maternal education. In turn, verbal short-term memory directly and positively affects speech perception, language, and health-related quality of life. Maternal education directly and positively affects language outcomes, and indirectly via its effects on nonverbal I.Q. and verbal short-term memory. Better language is directly associated with a better quality of life. This study found evidence consistent with early hearing intervention having a positive effect on speech perception and language via its effect on verbal short-term memory. Children who had better language also had better quality of life. The importance of early hearing for cognitive development lends support to early detection and early hearing intervention, including streamlining pathways for early CI activation. Strategies for intervention in language and communication development may benefit from tailoring programs to meet the needs of individuals with different memory profiles for optimizing outcomes.