Verbal Control Research Articles

부모의 언어통제유형이 유아의 거짓말 행동에 미치는 영향

Abstract The purpose of this study was to find out the influence of the Parent’s control based on young children’s habit oflying. This study was carried out through experimental observations. For the purpose of this study a total of 798participants were selected from 5 kindergartens located in Seoul, Gyeong-gi and Incheon. The results of the studyshowed that rather than parents being excessively strict towards their children and commanding discipline, the childrearing attitude of rational and logical explanation along with discretionary power given to young children of theirown rules. This can allow young children to morally decide and behave themselves. Moreover, moral education thatis suited for the young children’s development in order to internally learn about the moral behaviors on their own isneeded.± ¯ ,FZ
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, ‡D( ?Eo(child’s moral behavior), , ‡DbUH i2(child’s lying behavior),}D ± ¯ >, (parent’s verbal control type)Corresponding Author : Sungeun Yang, Consumer & Child Studies Major, Inha University, # 253 Younghyun-dong, Nam-gu, Incheon, 402-751,Korea Tel: + 82-32-860-8117 Fax: +82-32-865-5228 E-mail: syang@inha.ac.kr* ¤™7³Ž s$¤™DLP.* ¤™72011™ a> s%64 0 v sy% ¨ E ´3u
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Incorporating Human Factors into The Development and Operational Evaluations of Runway Status Lights

The FAA is sponsoring MIT Lincoln Laboratory to conduct human factors assessments of a prototype direct warning system aimed at preventing runway incursions called Runway Status Lights (RWSL). RWSL is comprised of Runway Entrance Lights (RELs), Takeoff Hold Lights (THLs), Runway Intersection Lights (RILs), and the enhanced Final Approach Runway Occupancy Signal (eFAROS), which provide autonomous information as a back-up to verbal air traffic control clearances. Human factors assessment has been essential to both the design and development of RWSL as well as on-going operational evaluations. This safety system has proven effective when both the technical performance and human response is correct according to the designated protocol. Since the commencement of the first field tests of RWSL in 2005, the user outreach, collection and assessment of feedback, and additional human factors assessment techniques have been key to the successful operational concept validation. Specific improvements resulting from system modifications based on human factors assessment will be discussed. Language: en

Verbal Control Robot which Interprets Vague Expression

This paper discusses the development of the interpretation system for the mobile robot manipulation which maps linguistic command with vague expression issued by a human operator to an appropriate quantity. The system allows the operator to use only few kinds of vague expressions, as can be seen in the case when a human instructs some other person orally. The problem here is to find an appropriate quantity for each operator because the quantity corresponding to the vague word which is implied by the operator differs when operator changes. To cope with the difficulty, this paper proposes the distance type fuzzy reasoning algorithm with iterative learning scheme that can accommodate individual difference on how to quantify the vague expression. The experiment has been carried out to examine the change in the number of instructions required to guide the mobile robot to destination. The result of the experiment shows that the number of instructions necessary for achieving the guidance task decreases in almost all cases, which implies the validity of the proposed system.

1417 Changes in Mother-Child Interactions in Very Preterm and Fullterm Dyads From Preschool to Middle Childhood

Methods: Changes in dyadic mother-child interactions were investigated in a geographically defined prospective whole-population sample of very preterm and/or very low birth weight children (VLBW/VP; n = 265) and compared to a matched sample of fullterm controls (n = 276).Results: At both 6 and 8 years, VLBW/VP children were less persistent and socially engaging and their mothers behaved less sensitive and more controlling. Differences in maternal behavior between groups disappeared once adjusted for child IQ. The patterns of change over two years in child overall activity, maternal sensitivity and verbal control, as well as harmony of interactions were similar in both groups. However, significant improvements in task persistence and social interaction were found for VLBW/VP children only. Structural equation modeling confirmed that bidirectional influences shaped mother and child behavior development and, specifically, that VLBW/VP child characteristics predicted maternal behavior over time.Conclusions: Mothers of very preterm children are not less sensitive or controlling but their behavior is attuned to the level of cognitive functioning of their children with the aim to facilitate attention regulation and task persistence.

Where-what networks for motor invariance without any internal master map

The adult brain appears to have a capability of location invariance: No matter where on the retina an object appears, the brain recognizes the object. Yet, this does not mean that the brain drops the location information, since it needs such information for arm reaching. Mishkin and coworkers 1983 [1] reported that the dorsal and ventral streams of the brain are correlated to space (“where”) and object (“what”) information, respectively, based largely on their brain lesion studies. Many later experimental studies verified and enriched this discovery, the working and learning of these two streams have been elusive (Deco & Rolls 2004 [2]). It has been known that feedback connections are widely present along these streams, but computational understanding and analysis are lacking. On the other hand, the sensory cortex alone seems to use distributed representations. Each feature neuron has a receptive field, corresponding to a patch in the retina. There are multiple nearby neurons whose receptive fields almost completely overlap and they detect different features of the overlapping patches (e.g., each for a different edge orientation). However, such distributed “patch representations” must be combined somehow to give rise to behaviors that demonstrate invariant object recognition. Ann Treisman [2] and David Van Essen et al. [4] proposed the existence of a mater feature map. Following neuro-anatomical data, our visuomotor model Where What Network (WWN) suggests that to understand the causality of the above phenomenon, it is beneficial to go beyond PP and IT to include the premotor and motor areas in the frontal cortex. We introduce two motor areas as the integral parts of cortical object representation: location motor (LM) and type motor (TM). The former correlates the frontal eye field (FEF) and the location-relevant control areas in the pre-motor and motor areas. The latter corresponds to the ventral frontal cortex (VFC) and the verbal control area in the pre-motor and motor areas. The dorsal stream plus LM learns type invariance and location specificity (for, e.g., arm reaching). The ventral stream plus TM learns location invariance and type specificity (for, e.g., pronounce the object type). Bottom-up and top-down connections from LM and TM dynamically wire connections and shape the corresponding streams, resulting in complementary representations: invariance with one is specificity with the other. WWNs were tested to deal with the tightly intertwined attention and recognition for vision in the presence of complex backgrounds. Each of attention and recognition has been modeled separately in previous work, e.g., visual saliency guides covert attention sifts. How the visual cortex deals with both attention and recognition from complex natural backgrounds conjunctively has been elusive. WWN gives the first biological plausible theory for this joint problem. With general object in complex new backgrounds, WWN reported 95% in classification rate and under 2-pixel location error, when about 75% images areas are from unknown complex backgrounds. Each WWN epigenetically generates and adapts emergent representations using Hebbian like neuronal learning mechanisms. WWN explains how top-down attention originates from LM for location-based and TM for type-based top-down attention. This model does not need an the appearance-kept internal master feature maps proposed earlier.

The characteristics of and risk factors associated with incarcerated sex offenders in Taiwan

This article presents the demographic characteristics of a sample of Taiwanese sex offenders, examines the rate of sexual recidivism in Taiwan, and describes which factors distinguish recidivists from non-recidivists. This article assesses the recidivism rate of a sample of 503 male sex offenders incarcerated from 1999 to 2004. The sample is divided into two groups: non-recidivists (88.7%) and recidivists (11.3%). The variables are categorized into demographic characteristics, criminal history, interpersonal relationships, and offending behaviors. Multivariate logistic regression analysis suggests that recidivism is significantly related to male victims, poor interactions with employers, verbal control (i.e., threats to or verbal control of victims), weapon control (threatening or controlling victims with weapons), and familiarity with victims. Furthermore, this article will establish a database for demographic characteristics and associated risk factors related to recidivism in incarcerated sex offenders in Taiwan. These data will be useful for preventing future sex crimes.

Use of noun morphology by children with language impairment: the case of Hungarian

Children with language impairment often exhibit significant difficulty in the use of grammatical morphology. Although English-speaking children with language impairment have special difficulties with verb morphology, noun morphology can also be problematic in languages of a different typology. Hungarian is an agglutinating language with multiple suffixation, in which both regular-class and irregular-class nouns contain the same recognizable grammatical markers, but the two classes differ in their morphophonology and productivity. Such typological characteristics provide a good basis for evaluating processing accounts of language impairment such as the morphological richness account. We examined the production of Hungarian irregular and regular noun morphology through elicited production of nouns with plural, accusative case and plural plus accusative case suffixes in an older (8-10 years) and a younger (4-7 years) group of children with language impairment and two verbal control groups matched on vocabulary size. The children's accuracy was scored both in terms of grammatical function (whether plural and/or accusative case was appropriately marked) and morphophonology (whether the production reflected the phonotactic form required for the stem plus suffix). The younger children with language impairment were less accurate than the younger verbal control children when two suffixes (marking plural and accusative case) were required, at least when noun stem classes were regular. All groups showed significant overgeneralization of stem forms with correct selection of suffixes. However, there were strong word frequency effects in the language impairment, but not in the verbal control groups. Much of the data were consistent with predictions of the morphological richness account. However, there was also evidence suggestive of differences between the language impairment and verbal control groups in their representations. In particular, the children with language impairment seemed to rely more (though not exclusively) on memorized items in the lexicon.

Effects of a speaker immersion procedure on the production of verbal operants.

Introduction Children with native intellectual disabilities and children from impoverished backgrounds frequently lack or do not develop functional verbal repertoires naturally (Hart and Risley, 1995). Even when children with delays in language development receive behavioral language interventions, their prior lack of a history of reinforcement for vocal verbal communication calls for intensive language learning instruction (Greer, Chavez-Brown, Nirgudkar, Stolfi, & Rivera-Valdes, 2005; Greer & Keohane, 2005; Pistoljevic, 2008; Pistoljevic & Greer, 2006). These children need intensive language experiences to compensate for deficits in their learning history and to advance their verbal development. According to Woods (1984), when the verbal antecedents from the parents were absent, children with native disabilities were usually silent, lacking speech, whereas typically developing children were more likely to initiate interactions without verbal antecedents from others. Many students with native or environmental disabilities acquire correct vocal verbal behavior during instruction but may not emit it spontaneously in non-instructional settings (NIS) (Greer, 2002; Nuzzolo-Gomez & Greer, 2004). they lack is or spontaneous speaker behavior, including verbal operants emitted without any verbal antecedent and used in ways that were not previously reinforced (Ross, Nuzzolo, Stolfi & Natarelli, 2006). This behavior is a major goal of language training programs. Williams and Greer (1993) compared the effects of linguistic and verbal behavior curricula on the acquisition of functional speech. For the linguistic curriculum, the students responded to the verbal behavior of the instructor (e.g., What is that?) by emitting intraverbal responses. In the verbal behavior curriculum, the student responses were under the control of non-verbal stimuli (i.e., the presence of the nonverbal stimuli served as an antecedent). Operant procedures were used for both methods and both produced the same number of correct responses. Overall, the verbal behavior curriculum resulted not only in the students' learning more words but also in the maintenance and generalization of verbal operants. In other words, the two curricula produced two very different repertoires, and only the verbal behavior curriculum resulted in spontaneous speech under the control of non-verbal environmental stimuli. Typically developing children seem to learn to communicate in effortless ways. They are more likely to respond to nonverbal antecedents in order to initiate verbal interactions spontaneously, readily responding to the natural establishing operations (EOs) that control human communicative behavior (e.g., lack of social attention when attention is preferred for pure tacts; deprivation or aversive conditions for mands). Therefore, one possible reason why children with disabilities are often observed not emit pure tacts and mands in NIS is that they were taught to produce these verbal operants only under the partial antecedent verbal control of others. That is, tacts and mands were taught as intraverbals and the relevant direct control of nonverbal antecedents was never actually learned. In other words, these children learned to talk only when asked for a response (e.g., What do you want?) and not in response to a natural EO (e.g., deprivation or aversive conditions). As an alternative, one could avoid verbal antecedents and arrange the environment to create EOs that would encourage the emission of pure mands (i.e., requests for desired items independent of verbal antecedents) (Pistoljevic, 2008). Within the verbal behavior model, speaker behavior is represented by six basic operants or functions, each defined by effects on the listener. Included are echoics, mands, tacts, intraverbals, textual responses and autoclitics (Skinner, 1957; Ross et al., 2006). Among these operants, tacts and mands are of particular interest for the current study. …

Law and grace in Saint Augustine: a fresh perspective on mindfulness and spirituality in behaviour therapy

The secular, acceptance-based philosophy of third wave behaviour therapy has easily absorbed the notion of mindfulness that originated in Eastern spirituality, entailing a secularised approach to transcendence. The present article seeks to connect mindfulness with existing efforts to integrate the Western client's spirituality into psychotherapy. For that purpose, we show how Christian grace theology and mindfulness theory overlap in the way they construe transcendence and self. Both approaches enhance openness to experience and deemphasise verbal control as a tool for personal progress. It is argued that awareness of this overlap can make it easier for the therapist to understand and appreciate the client's religious perspective. It can also help turn a client's spirituality into a relevant personal strength for therapy. Finally, explaining the overlap can enhance the credibility of mindfulness interventions with traditional Christian clients and make these interventions relevant to their spiritual concerns.

Effect of maternal panic disorder on mother–child interaction and relation to child anxiety and child self-efficacy

To determine whether mothers with panic disorder with or without agoraphobia interacted differently with their children than normal control mothers, 86 mothers and their adolescents (aged between 13 and 23 years) were observed during a structured play situation. Maternal as well as adolescent anxiety status was assessed according to a structured diagnostic interview. Results showed that mothers with panic disorder/agoraphobia showed more verbal control, were more criticizing and less sensitive during mother-child interaction than mothers without current mental disorders. Moreover, more conflicts were observed between mother and child dyadic interactions when the mother suffered from panic disorder. The comparison of parenting behaviors among anxious and non-anxious children did not reveal any significant differences. These findings support an association between parental over-control and rejection and maternal but not child anxiety and suggest that particularly mother anxiety status is an important determinant of parenting behavior. Finally, an association was found between children's perceived self-efficacy, parental control and child anxiety symptoms.

Uncertainty and the use of force among Venezuelan police officers

Literature often emphasizes the use of force as a distinctive feature of police work, while risky encounters and uncertainty are conditions under which such work is carried out daily. Conditions leading to the use of force by the police have been associated with the presence of menacing minorities, losing verbal control, the youth and lack of experience of officers, and critical physical proximity between officers and suspects. Additionally, defiance towards the police has often been linked to increased force used by the police. It is here proposed that uncertainty also fosters police officers’ dispositions to use force. In this study, four focus groups were conducted with officers from two Venezuelan municipal police departments in October 2003, presenting a hypothetical scenario progressing from contact with suspects towards an open confrontation involving a shooting. Officers perceived, through different phases of the scenario, an encounter of no easily predictable outcome with suspects, involving potential harm to the police and bystanders. A pattern seemed to appear among officers in which overcoming real or assumed resistance became the central issue. When physical confrontation with suspects became evident, self defence was the clearest justification for the use of force, though the use of force was also defended by officers without further elaboration on the requirements and conditions for effectively thwarting aggression. It appears that uncertainty about the outcome of a situation fosters both the disposition and the justification for using force.

A functional analytic approach to group psychotherapy.

More than two decades ago, Kohlenberg and Tsai (1987) published the first book chapter on Functional Analytic Psychotherapy (FAP), an approach to psychotherapy that is based on the functional analysis of the therapist-client relationship in the individual talk therapy setting. Over time, FAP has consolidated its place among third wave behavior therapies. Third-wave behavior therapy is a strand of treatments that builds upon many of the acquisitions of first-wave (exposure-based) classical behavior therapy and second- wave (based on modifying thoughts and beliefs) cognitive behavior therapy, but differs from them in its distrust of verbal control and its focus on contextual meaning. These differentials give the third-wave behavior therapies an experiential flavor which is strongly evident in FAP. Relying on a client case conceptualization, the FAP therapist observes clinically relevant behavior when it occurs in-session. When it does not occur, he or she evokes it. The curative process depends on the therapist's allowing natural, direct consequences to affect these clinically relevant behaviors in-session. In addition, the therapist monitors and when necessary, promotes generalization. These tasks are interwoven to produce FAP's approach to the healing potential of a relationship. While FAP was developed mainly as an approach to individual psychotherapy, there have been translations into group therapy (e.g. Gaynor & Lawrence, 2002; Hoekstra & Tsai, in press). The present paper presents one such translation. It suggests that, when properly understood, FAP necessarily leads to a type of group therapy that is pragmatically quite different from traditional behavioral group therapy. How could we describe this difference? Since its early days, behavioral group therapy has been distinguished by its teaching technology, including training activities and streamlined learning modules (e.g. Rose, 1977). Group therapies in the cognitive mainstream of behavior therapy (e.g. Free, 1999; Bieling, McCabe & Antony, 2006) tend to maintain this characteristic, through activities such as lectures and structured exercises. Even when, for example, exposure for social phobia is done in-session, the programmed teaching focus is maintained (Becker & Heimberg, 2002). When we apply FAP to the group setting, however, it comes much closer to Group Psychotherapy, which has often focused on unexpected experiences and outcomes (Yalom, 1975; Rutan & Stone, 1984). However, group FAP is not a compromise between these two traditions. The combination of a flexible focus on spontaneously evolving interactions with a functional contextual approach to the healing nature of relationships adds a new dimension to group therapy. The aim of the present article is to discuss how this dimension works. For that purpose, personal experiences in supervising FAP in group therapy will be described. These groups functioned as free-of-charge services for socially disadvantaged patients. First, some points of inspiration for conceptualizing the work in the groups will be presented. Then, it will be described in an informal way how a group can be transformed into a network of healing relationships. It will be shown how this can be done on different levels of analysis, namely that of long-term strategy, of in-session tactics and of moment-to-moment technique. Finally, the transformation of unplanned events into in-vivo learning opportunities will be illustrated with a series of short examples. The chronic pain group experience Our first group, described by Vandenberghe, Cruz and Ferro (2003) was formed at the initiative of the two latter authors with the intention of helping people referred from a nearby pain center. These were patients who did not respond to medical treatment for chronic orofacial pain. The group started in August 2001 as the first in what would become a long series of FAP groups for chronic pain (e.g. Vandenberghe, Ferro & Cruz, 2003; Vandenberghe & Ferro, 2005; Martins-Queiroz & Vandenberghe, 2006). …

Spatial language in Williams Syndrome: Evidence for a special interaction?

We present data on the language of space in Hungarian individuals with Williams syndrome (WS; 19 in the first, 15 in the second study, between 8; and 21; 11) and a verbal control (VC) group of typically developing (TD; 19 in the first, 15 in the second study, between 3;5 and 10;7) children from: (1) a study of elicited production and comprehension of spatial terms; and (2) a sentence completion task on case markers in their spatial and non-spatial use. The first study showed poorer performance in the WS group, but similar performance patterns and a special difficulty of SOURCE terms in both groups. We did not find overall group differences in the second study. We argue that WS performance patterns reflect WS spatial abilities and seem to be constrained by the same factors in WS as in TD. Results also lead us to conclude that, contrary to most previous claims, there is no selective deficit of spatial terms within WS language, and they also suggest that not all uses of spatial terms require activation of mental models of space.

Satire and the threat of speech: Horace's Satires, Book 1

In his first book of Satires, written in the late, violent days of the Roman republic, Horace exposed satiric speech as a tool of power and domination. Using critical theories from classics, speech act analysis, and other fields, Catherine Schlegel argues that Horace's acute poetic observation of hostile speech provides insights into the operations of verbal control that are relevant to his time and to ours. She demonstrates that, though Horace is forced by his political circumstances to develop a new, unthreatening style of satire, his poems contain a challenge to our most profound habits of violence, hierarchy, and domination. Focusing on the relationships between speaker and audience and between old and new style, Schlegel examines the internal conflicts of a notoriously difficult text. This exciting contribution to the field of Horatian studies will be of interest to classicists as well as other scholars interested in the genre of satire.

Interparental agreement on the use of control in childrearing and infants’ compliance to mother's control strategies

This study examined associations between interparental agreement about the use of control with children, maternal control strategies, and child compliance to mother in 55 two-parent families with 11- to 15-month-old infants (27 boys, 28 girls). Mothers and fathers reported on their beliefs about the use of control with children, and this data was used to create an interparental agreement score for each mother–father dyad. Mother's verbal control strategies and child responses to maternal control strategies were assessed at both 14- and 18 months during a 15-min home observation play session. Results revealed that mothers who believed in the use of strict control with children used more directives when interacting with their child. Mothers who used more directives to control their child at 14 months had children who were more defiant at 18 months. Parents who agreed about the use of control had children who were more compliant at 18 months.

Optical Topography with Near-Infrared Spectroscopy During a Verbal-Fluency Task

Abstract: In this study we investigated the changes in brain oxygenation in 22 subjects during a verbal fluency task (VFT) using multichannel near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). To assess topographical effects in more detail we measured over bilateral prefrontal and over the left frontolateral cortex in 11 subjects. We found significantly higher increases in O2HB, as a sign of cerebral activation, during the VFT compared to a verbal repetition control task over the left prefrontal and the inferior left lateral brain areas. These results underscore the value of NIRS to assess functional brain activation during cognitive tasks. Furthermore, it shows the advantage of multichannel compared to previously used single channel NIRS measurements.

Applying the Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion to a Videotape-Based Eating Disorders Primary Prevention Program for Adolescent Girls

This study applied principles from the Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion to the prevention of disordered eating. Early adolescent girls watched either a preventive videotape only (n = 114) or video plus post-video activity (verbal discussion, written exercises, or control discussion) (n = 187); or had no intervention (n = 104). Significantly more body image and knowledge improvements occurred at post video and follow-up in the intervention groups compared to no intervention. There were no outcome differences among intervention groups, or between girls with high or low elaboration likelihood. Further research is needed in integrating the videotape into a broader prevention package.

The Cancode interaction analysis system in the oncological setting: reliability and validity of video and audio tape coding

Cancode is a computerized interaction analysis system developed for cancer consultations. This paper assesses its reliability and validity, and compares the use of audio versus video tape; by assessing 30 consultations between an actor and 10 oncologists. Weighted Kappa inter- and intra-rater scores ranged from 0.5 to 1.0 and 0.58–1.0, respectively, and use of video tape did not alter verbal coding. Factor analysis of verbal codes revealed two factors, ‘verbal control’ and ‘verbal support’. Verbal and non-verbal doctor behavior differed by patient type (‘verbal support’ P=0.007, ‘verbal control’ P=0.004, ‘Responsiveness’ P=0.000, and ‘Immediacy’ P=0.000). Inter-doctor variation was noted for ‘verbal support’ ( P=0.000) and ‘Relaxation’ ( P=0.000). ‘Responsiveness’ was negatively correlated with ‘verbal support’ (−0.58) and ‘verbal control’ (−0.65). Cancode is reliable, valid and sensitive to doctors behavioral changes. For a more passive patient, the doctor may switch from a ‘cure’ to ‘care’ oriented consult, responding to psycho-social instead of informational needs.

Sociocultural Variation in Mothers' Control over Children's Behavior

Prior findings of strict control of middle‐class Estonian mothers have not been consistent with middle‐class parent–child interaction patterns reported in other studies. The current study sought to find out to what degree the tendency to be more controlling toward children can be explained by the Estonian mothers' own experience of growing up in a totalitarian society. With this aim, measures of maternal controlling attitudes and actual verbal control of children were employed in a second country with a similar history of Soviet occupation—Latvia— and compared with previous data on Estonian, Finnish, and Swedish mono‐ and bicultural mothers. The questionnaire data revealed that Estonian (including Swedish–Estonian) and Latvian mothers placed higher emphasis on controlling children than did Finnish and Swedish mothers. At the same time, in their real‐life interactions, only Estonian mothers living in Estonia exhibited a highly directive conversational style. Finally, the discussion focuses on possible reasons for cultural variability in maternal controlling attitudes and actual control of children.

Correspondence training: A review of the literature.

Correspondence training involves modification of nonverbal behavior via changes in verbal behavior. The procedure has a long history of effectiveness with a wide range of learners, but its potential for use with young children with disabilities remains largely unrealized. In an effort to identify the most appropriate applications of correspondence training procedures for this population, the authors conducted a comprehensive review of the existing literature base. The purpose of this article is to provide an in-depth, critical analysis of empirical research on the effectiveness of correspondence training. Thirty-three data-based articles are included in the review, which is organized into 4 categories, including: (1) early correspondence training research; (2) the role of the verbalization/content condition in correspondence training; (3) issues related to reinforcement; and (4) procedures to promote generalization. ********** Over the course of the past 30 years, correspondence training procedures have been used to modify the behavior of individuals with and without disabilities. Researchers have evaluated the impact of correspondence training on children's use of specific play materials (e.g., Baer, Williams, Osnes, & Stokes, 1985; deFreitas Ribeiro, 1989; Israel & O'Leary, 1977; Risley & Hart, 1968), engagement (Bevill, Gast, Maguire, & Vail, 2001), appropriate social behaviors (e.g., Odom & Watts, 1991; Osnes, Guevremont, & Stokes, 1986; Rogers-Warren & Baer, 1976), domestic and work-related skills (e.g., Crouch, Rusch, & Karlan, 1984; Paniagua, 1985), academic behaviors (e.g., Weninger & Baer, 1990; Keogh, Burgo, Whitman, & Johnson, 1983), health and safety behaviors (Baer, Blount, Detrich, & Stokes, 1987; Olsen-Woods, Miltenberger, & Foreman, 1998), leisure/recreational skills (Wilson, Rusch, & Lee, 1992), and self-control (Karoly & Dirks, 1977). While the general format of correspondence training has remained the same over time, theory and practice related to the procedure have evolved and changed in response to research outcomes. The purpose of this article is to provide a critical analysis of the empirical research on the effectiveness of correspondence training with learners with and without disabilities. This review expands on the work of Baer (1990) by providing in-depth analysis of critical investigations, as well as an overview of studies completed since publication of that review. Because the literature base on correspondence training is relatively large and varied, review of individual studies is organized into 4 categories, including: (1) early correspondence training research (2) the role of the verbalization/content condition in correspondence training; (3) issues related to reinforcement; and (4) procedures to promote generalization. METHOD Research studies related to use of correspondence training procedures were identified through electronic and archival searches of refereed professional journals. The archival search was conducted by reviewing the abstracts of journals listed in Table 1 to identify studies related to the topic. The electronic search was conducted using ERIC and PsychInfo databases at the University of Georgia. Key words used in the electronic search were: Correspondence training, reinforcement of correspondence, verbal behavior, nonverbal behavior, rule-governed behavior, behavior regulation, generalized verbal control, mental retardation, intellectual disability, and developmental delay. Reference sections of articles found through the electronic and archival searches were reviewed to identify additional studies. RESULTS Thirty-three empirical studies, 2 literature reviews, and 5 articles addressing specific issues related to correspondence training were identified via electronic, archival, and reference searches. Summaries of research on use of correspondence training procedures with and without disabilities are provided in Table 2. …