Vegetative Growth Period Research Articles

Flowering time is a critical determinant of regional adaptability. High‐yielding rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties, such as IR64, exhibit an extended vegetative growth period. As a result, IR64 is poorly adapted to high‐latitude regions, such as Hirosaki‐Aomori in northern Japan where prolonged day lengths and chilling stress during later growth stages induce an excessively late heading. In this study, we sequenced the whole genome of AS996, an early‐heading rice cultivar derived from IR64 harboring introgressions from the wild rice species Oryza rufipogon Griff. Genetic analyses revealed that the AS996 allele of Days to Heading 8 (DTH8) accelerates heading by 10–14 days in the IR64 genetic background. Sequence analysis identified a 1‐bp deletion in DTH8 that causes a frameshift and a premature stop codon, likely resulting in loss‐of‐function of the gene. Further gene expression analysis and protein structure modeling suggested that the truncation of DTH8 in AS996 leads to its dysfunctions by abolishing its interaction with Ghd7, another key protein regulating heading date. Notably, AS996 maintained yield stability in both Hirosaki and the southernmost location in Japan, Ishigaki Island. Sequence analysis across 378 rice varieties revealed that the AS996 haplotype represents a novel variant. These findings highlight the potential for utilizing loss‐of‐function alleles of DTH8 to enhance the adaptability and yield of high‐performing indica rice varieties in high‐latitude regions.

Flue gas desulfurization gypsum as a sustainable amendment for coal mine soil reclamation and camelina-based bioenergy crop production.

Bamboo usually undergoes a prolonged vegetative growth period for several decades. Additionally, not all bamboo species produce seeds, and the regulatory mechanisms governing embryogenic callus formation remain unclear, which constrains molecular breeding progress in bamboo. Here, we used buds of Bambusa changningensis Yi et B. X. Li as explants for callus induction. The results revealed that bamboo embryogenic callus (EC) on media added coconut powder, 2,4-D and proline increased faster than that on other media. The content of EC increased with the increase of 2,4-D concentration on different media. The concentrations of auxin and gibberellin (GA) in non-embryogenic callus (NE) were significantly higher than those in EC. Furthermore, RNA-seq analysis revealed that 795 DEGs were mainly enriched in pathways of starch synthase and amyloplast metabolism. Gene set analysis revealed that genes associated with amylopectin synthesis and metabolism pathways were upregulated in EC, and several starch synthesis-related genes were significantly enriched in EC. We then observed that EC exhibited more clearly amyloplast, higher starch content, and three starch metabolism related genes (SS1, SBE1, STP-1) showed higher expression levels compared to NE. Collectively, these results identified that the transition from NE to EC was associated with amyloplast synthesis and metabolism, and it providing new insights into the establishment of callus regeneration and genetic transformation systems in bamboo.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12870-025-07267-2.

PurposeZones for spatial irrigation management are often assumed to be static, dictated by non- or slowly-changing parameters, including elevation and slope, soil depth, texture and hydraulic properties, and other landscape properties. Sensing allows for the integration of static management zones (MZ) with a dynamic characterization of water status. Temporal remote sensing data, indicating crop status and, particularly, thermal imaging, indicating water status, suggests that, rather than static, dynamic re-zoning within crop seasons could be beneficial to precision water management.MethodsMZ delineation and precision irrigation for cotton were evaluated using a variable rate center pivot sprinkler system. The objectives were to evaluate precision management over time with both static and intra-seasonal dynamic zoning. Spatial distribution and irrigation decision-making were re-evaluated on a weekly basis. Irrigation followed commercial best management, based on target values of plant size (growth rate) in the early vegetative growth period and of plant water status (leaf water potential, LWP) in the reproductive and cotton boll production periods. Site-specific decision-making used drone-acquired normalized difference vegetation index as a proxy for crop height and growth rate and a thermal image-based crop water stress index as a proxy for LWP.Results and conclusionDynamic precision irrigation of cotton based on weekly decisions using the remote sensing products slightly decreased spatial variability while improving water productivity by 12% using static MZs and by 19% using dynamic MZs, compared to commercial uniform irrigation. The costs and benefits of implementing intra-seasonal dynamic zoning are discussed.

Sowing date significantly affects plant growth, development, and yield, holding a crucial role in soybean cultivation. This study was conducted in the southern coastal region of Korea under recent climate change conditions to investigate the effects of five different sowing dates on climatic characteristics, growth, and yield. Compared to historical data, the southern coastal region has experienced a consistent increase in average temperature during the soybean cultivation period, along with frequent abnormal summer climate events such as concentrated heavy rainfall and monsoons. These climate changes prolonged the vegetative growth period in earlier sowings, leading to an increased risk of lodging at maturity due to vigorous vegetative growth. Furthermore, earlier sowing delayed flowering and exposed plants to longer post-flowering photoperiods, consequently reducing the number of pods. Therefore, in the southern coastal region of Korea, it is crucial to re-evaluate conventional sowing practices and establish region-specific optimal dates, with careful consideration given to postponing the soybean sowing date to late June in order to enhance yield stability and improve the feasibility of double-cropping systems by shortening the growing period.

Solanum nigrum L. has been a widely studied Cd hyperaccumulator. Solanum lycopersicum L. also belongs to the same family (Solanaceae) with S. nigrum. Compared to S. nigrum, the Cd accumulation characteristics and remediation potentials of seven S. lycopersicum cultivars at their maximum vegetative growth period stages (MVGPS) were determined. The advantage of the remediating method at MVGPS is to avoid Cd entering food chain via fruits at mature period. Soil pot experiments were conducted and used to determine Cd concentration in all test plants. Biomasses and some physiology index were measured either. The results showed that the enrichment factors (EFs, the Cd concentration ratio of shoots to soils) of the tested S. nigrum and all cultivars were greater than 1. However, only the translocation factors (TFs, the Cd concentration ratio of shoots to roots) of S. nigrum and Baishite (S. lycopersicum cultivar) were higher than 1, indicating that only Baishite exhibited the main properties of a Cd hyperaccumulator. In particular, the Cd concentration (20.27 mg kg-1) in shoot of Baishite was same as that of S. nigrum, and they were the highest. Cd shoot accumulation capacity (96.1 µg plant-1) of Baishite was 17.6 % higher than S. nigrum due to its higher shoot biomass (an increase of 10.4 %). The shoot of biomass (g plant-1) in Baishite was higher than in S. nigrum. Furthermore, some index like chlorophyll content and SOD activity of Baishite were higher either, which might be part reasons for Baishite highly accumulated Cd, but other mechanisms could play more important roles. These findings suggested that some S. lycopersicum cultivars could have a higher Cd remediation potential, and further screening for more ideal remediation plants from crop was possible.

Projections of climate change impacts on crop production vary across crops, study areas, and shared socioeconomic pathways indicating a need for higher specificity and regional relevance. Here, we confirmed in silico, future climate warming generally increased soybean yield and yield stability, decreasing the drought stress by mid-century, particularly in the western areas of the Northeast China. The declining yield coefficient-of-variation was mostly caused by both increases in mean yield and decreases in yield standard deviation. The random forest algorithm identified the reduction in the growing degree days during vegetative growth period was the main factor driving higher soybean yields. The increases in rainfall during reproductive growth period and decreases in its coefficient-of-variation would help reduce soybean drought stress and yield coefficient-of-variation in the future. This study highlights regional specific positive impacts of climate change, useful to inform policy and stakeholders to increase preparedness along value chains under expected future climates.

Molecular mechanism of interaction between SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE and APETALA1 in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Effective and efficient use of water resources has become an important issue in recent studies, where the impacts of climate change has become more apparent and alternative solutions are discussed. There, however, are limited studies that look at the impacts of water stress at different vegetative periods. For this reason, in this study, different levels of water treatment (0%, 30%, 70%) were applied to red cabbage at two stages of development (early and late vegetative) in a two-year field study. The effect of water stress on the major antioxidant compounds, as well as on yield and some morphological parameters were investigated. According to the findings, the least yield loss (22%) occurred in the early vegetative period of the second-year trial where 70% irrigation water was applied, while the highest yield loss (56%) was obtained during the early vegetative period of the first-year trial where no irrigation was applied. Biochemical analyses revealed that the highest accumulation of flavonoids, 0.83 mg g-1, and anthocyanins, 1.51 mg g-1, occurred in the early vegetative period with the trial that received no irrigation treatment. The phenolic compound content was determined as 1.62 mg g-1, and the antioxidant capacity was found to be 1.93 mg g-1 during the late vegetative period in the trials without irrigation treatment. These findings suggest that in regions with limited water resources, water conservation can be practiced during different vegetative periods in order to get higher biochemical benefits with a lower yield loss when cultivating red cabbage.

Parasitic plants are a diverse and unique polyphyletic assemblage of flowering plants that survive by obtaining resources via direct vascular connections to a host plant. Ecologically important in their native ecosystems, these typically cryptic plants remain understudied and fundamental knowledge of the biology, ecology, and evolution of most species is lacking. This gap limits our understanding of ecosystems and conservation management. We established a multistep protocol to conduct the first investigation of the reproductive life history of root parasite genus Balanophora, testing the hypotheses of perenniality, cryptic perenniality, and plasticity across five geographically isolated populations in Taiwan. A review of 123 Balanophora publications found contradictory determinations, including no determination (87%), perennial (9%), annual (1%), biennial (1%), or a combination (2%). No primary study investigated the question, and no determination was accompanied by reference. Between 2021 and 2024, we tested a hypothesis of perenniality (109 individuals, 135 patches) and cryptic perenniality (73 host samples), monitored population dynamics (whole population), and potential for endophytic/dormant haustorial tissue (101 roots) across five isolated populations of Balanophora fungosa ssp. fungosa in Taiwan. Our results support semelparous annuality. After reproduction, individuals senesce and die, and the following year's population is recruited from newly germinated individuals which together develop in size and number during a vegetative growth period, undergo reproduction, and then themselves senesce and die. Each cycle is completed within a 12-month period. Synthesis: Our study provides the first quantitative determination of a semelparous annual reproductive life-history strategy for any species of Balanophora. This determination is important in our progress toward better understanding the species-and parasitic plants in general-as well as ecological roles within ecosystems and conservation management. Our study further provides a template for future work to expand life-history strategy determination across cryptic root parasitic plants.

Abstract Heading date is a pivotal agronomic trait that influences grain yield, and it is determined by florigen genes. However, the regulation of heading date and its impact on other agronomic traits remain to be fully understood. In this study, we identified a mutant named late‐flowering and big panicle 1 (lbp1) in rice; we surveyed the growth and yield traits in lbp1. Changes in gene expression between lbp1 and wild type (WT) were determined by RNA‐seq. lbp1 exhibits delayed heading of 1 month and enhancements in various agronomic traits. Compared with WT plants, lbp1 showed 336.9% higher biomass production, 27.7% longer panicle length, 41.2% higher grain numbers, 29.4% and 56.6% more primary and secondary branch numbers, and an overall 58.7% higher grain yield. Map‐based cloning pinpointed that the mutant phenotypes stemmed from a mutation in the early heading date 1 (Ehd1) gene. Through RNA‐seq and quantitative reverse transcription‐polymerase chain reaction analysis, we observed significantly lower expression levels of heading date 3a (Hd3a) and RICE FLOWERING LOCUS T 1 (RFT1) in lbp1 compared to WT plants. Additionally, the expression levels of several MADS‐box genes were downregulated in the mutant. Our findings indicate that negative regulation of the Ehd1‐Hd3a/RFT1 pathway leads to delayed heading, enhanced biomass production, and increased grain yield. This discovery presents an effective breeding strategy for developing new japonica rice varieties with prolonged vegetative growth periods suitable for cultivation in southern China and other low‐latitude regions.

Pre-sowing treatment of seeds with non-thermal plasma of different gases has been studied on the growth and yield of soybean (Glycine max var. JS-9560) under field conditions for two consecutive years (2022 and 2023). Five types of gases, N2, He, Ar, H2, and O2 were used to create plasma in a cylindrical vacuum container with an RF power supply. Soybean seeds were exposed to plasma for 15 seconds at 80 W. Growth measurements were taken at 30, 60, and 90 days after sowing the seeds. Plasma treatment improved germination, plant height, leaf area, and plant fresh weight at all the stages of the vegetative growth period. N2 and He plasma were most effective in promoting growth and biomass compared to Ar, O2, and H2. The yield parameters in terms of the number of pods, number of seeds, and 100 seed weight were improved to the extent of around 60 % by N2 and He plasma. Other gases (Ar, H2, and O2) were less beneficial in increasing the yield. Pre-sowing treatment of seeds with plasma especially with N2 and He would be highly beneficial for enhancing the yield of soybean at the field level. The characterization of soybean seeds was conducted using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and optical emission spectroscopy (OES). SEM analysis showed significant changes in nitrogen, helium, argon, oxygen, and hydrogen plasma treated seeds, indicating alterations on the surface of the starch caryopsis, resulting in large channels and pores. FTIR spectroscopy indicated modifications after exposure to plasma-treated seeds, suggesting surface activation due to lipid breakdown. OES detected OH, NO, O, and N2 radicals during plasma treatment, contributing to the optimal outcome.

Canopy architecture is fundamental to productivity in grapevines. This research focused on evaluating the impact of opening canopies on the capture of photosynthetically active radiation, photosynthetic activity, and berries’ physicochemical properties in Cabernet Sauvignon grapevines. A completely randomised design was used to compare open and closed canopies, with ten replicates per treatment (20 vines in total), during the vegetative growth period and after harvest. The key measurements included photon flux density (PFD), daily light integral (DLI), photosynthetic rate (PR), stomatal conductance (SC), intercellular CO2 concentration (IC), leaf area (LA), transpiration, ambient CO2 concentration, and temperature. Additionally, we assessed berry quality variables, such as total soluble solids (TSS), glucose/fructose ratio, total titratable acidity (TTA), pH, TSS/TTA, and total phenols (TP). During vegetative growth, PFD, DLI, PR, IC, and LA increased significantly (p ≤ 0.05), whereas after harvest, only PR and IC showed variation Closed canopies increased water use efficiency (CO2/H2O) by 62.5%, while the temperature was higher in open canopies. Opening canopy increased contacts, gaps and visible sky and reduced leaf area index. Berries from open canopies showed higher TSS, glucose-fructose, pH, TSS/TTA and TP contents. Opening canopy is essential for improving light interception, photosynthetic efficiency, and fruit quality in Cabernet Sauvignon grapevine cultivated in northern Mexico.

A double-cropping system is widely adopted in southern Korea, in which the sowing date of the second crop (soybean) can be delayed depending on the growth period of the first crop and weather conditions. Soybean yields may be reduced because of the shorter vegetative growth period and earlier flowering. This study examined soybean growth and yield responses as plant populations at a late planting date. A field experiment was conducted in the upland field at the Department of Southern Area Crop Science in Miryang, Gyeongsangnam-do, for two years (2022–2023) using four cultivars (Seonyu 2, Jungmo 3015, Seonpung, and Jangpung). A split-plot block design was used with three replications. The main plots had four sowing dates at 10-day intervals from 25 June to 25 July. The date of maturity was recorded, and the yield components and yield were examined after harvesting. The optimum planting population for maximizing the soybean yield with late planting was compared with the standard population result. To maintain pre- and post-crop yields and cultivate stable production, the sowing date limit for early maturing soybeans was July 15 and that for mid-maturing soybeans was July 5. The results highlight the potential to produce an economic soybean production level.

Stress in plants denotes the detrimental impact of alterations in external environmental conditions on regular plant growth and development. Plants employ diverse mechanisms to mitigate or evade nutritional stress-induced damage. In order to investigate the physiological response mechanism of plants to nutritional stress and assess its impact on soil nutrient content and antioxidant enzyme activity in rice, a field experiment was conducted applying five treatments: control, nitrogen (N) deficiency, phosphorus (P) deficiency, potassium (K) deficiency, and full fertilization. Rice leaf and soil samples were concurrently gathered during both the vegetative and reproductive growth stages of rice. Analysis was conducted on soil N, P, and K levels, as well as leaf antioxidant enzyme activities, to investigate the impact of nutrient stress on rice antioxidant enzymes and soil fertility. The research findings indicate that full fertilization treatment enhanced the agronomic properties of the soil compared to the control treatment. In the N-deficiency treatment, reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels increased by 16.53-33.89% during the reproductive growth period compared to the vegetative growth period. The peroxidase (POD) activity decreased by 41.39% and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity increased by 36.22% under K-deficiency treatment during the reproductive growth period compared to the vegetative growth period. Consequently, applying N and P fertilizer during the vegetative growth period can decrease membrane lipid peroxidation levels by 7.34-72.53%. The full fertilization treatment markedly enhanced rice yield compared to other treatments and increased the Nitrogen activation coefficient (NAC) and Phosphorus activation coefficient (PAC) in the soil, while decreasing the PAC. Elevating NAC levels can stimulate the activity or content of PRO, MDA, and RPS during the vegetative growth stage, whereas in the reproductive growth stage, it will decrease the content of ROS, PRO, and MDA. This data offers valuable insights and theoretical support for nutritional stress research.

The Alpine mountain hare (Lepus timidus varronis) and the European hare (Lepus europaeus) live parapatrically along the elevation gradient in the Alps with areas of overlap. Indications suggest competition between the two lagomorph species in overlapping areas. Resource partitioning in form of feeding niche differentiation may reduce competition and enable coexistence. The two hare species hybridise and produce fertile hybrids. To examine foraging behaviour of Alpine mountain hares, European hares and their hybrids in the Alps with particular interest in indications of competition between the two lagomorph species, we performed genetic analysis of hare faecal samples collected on five transects along the altitudinal gradient in the Alps in Grisons (Switzerland) at the middle and the end of the vegetation growth period in the year 2021. We then investigated visually foraging ecology using Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIRS). We recorded 32 European hares, 50 Alpine mountain hares, and 18 hybrids. Foraging behaviour of the Alpine mountain hares was different from foraging behaviour of European hares and hybrids. Alpine mountain hares displayed a specialist’s foraging behaviour, whereas European hares and hybrids a generalist’s foraging behaviour. Some Alpine mountain hares inhabiting overlapping elevations with European hares showed feeding niche differentiation, whereas others showed similar feeding behaviour as European hares suggesting competition between the two species about food. Our study underlines that European hares living in the Alps might be a competitor to the Alpine mountain hare. As a specialist, the Alpine mountain hare will be susceptible to future environmental change due to climate change.

Angelica sinensis is a traditional Chinese herbal medicine with significant economic and medicinal value. Early bolting and flowering can occur during the second year of the vegetative growth period, rendering the roots unviable for medicinal use and resulting in substantial economic losses. Consequently, there is growing interest in studying the molecular mechanisms underlying early bolting and increased root lignification in A. sinensis. Here, we conducted whole-genome bisulfite sequencing and observed an increase in whole-genome DNA methylation levels after bolting. Comparative analysis revealed differential methylation patterns of genic regions and transposable elements in the upstream, gene body, and downstream regions in the context of CG, CHG, and CHH, suggesting a possible association between CHH-type methylation of promoters and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis. Furthermore, combined analysis of transcriptomic and methylomics data revealed a positive correlation between DNA methylation and gene expression. We identified the hyperDMR gene in the CHH context within the promoter region of key gene AsCOMT1, which exhibits a dual catalytic activity and facilitates the synthesis of both ferulic acid and lignin. Enzyme kinetic analysis demonstrated that AsCOMT1 preferentially catalyses the synthesis of lignin monomer precursors. These findings highlight the important regulatory role of DNA methylation in bolting and the synthesis of secondary metabolites in A. sinensis, providing valuable insights into the underlying molecular mechanism.

ABSTRACT Direct application of low-grade rock phosphate (RP) is a less expensive alternative than the application of chemical phosphorus (P) for small holders relying on nutrient-deficient weathered soils. However, the effect of RP application on growth and yield is unstable for different crop species and soil water conditions. To identify legume species effective for RP direct application, five tropical legumes (cowpea, groundnut, bambara nut, mung bean, and soybean) were tested under two soil types with different water-holding capacities in Sudan Savanna; Lixisols and Plinthosols. The experiment was conducted under three conditions of P treatment, namely, RP application, triple super phosphate (TSP) application, and no phosphorus fertilizer application (0P). Under RP treatment, higher grain yield was obtained in Lixisols, which had a higher water-holding capacity. However, the yield increase was suppressed in the year with more rainfall owing to drastic changes in the soil moisture content, which caused excessive soil moisture stress during vegetative growth periods. Among the five legume species, cowpea and groundnut showed higher grain yields under the RP treatment than did other species. RP application increased shoot biomass but caused small changes in the shoot P and N concentrations. Soybean in Plinthosols had the highest yield ratio of RP/0P, but the absolute yield was low because of the insufficient soil water availability caused by the low water-holding capacity. RP direct application can assist shoot growth and yield, but it rarely compensates for basal yield differences between soil types and among legume species.

Drought is a major abiotic stress affecting crop yields. Mapping quantitative trait loci (QTLs) and mining genes for drought tolerance in rice are important for identifying gene functions and targets for molecular breeding. Here, we performed linkage analysis of drought tolerance using a recombinant inbred line population derived from Jileng 1 (drought sensitive) and Milyang 23 (drought tolerant). An ultra-high-density genetic map, previously constructed by our research team using genotype data from whole-genome sequencing, was used in combination with phenotypic data for rice grown under drought stress conditions in the field in 2017–2019. Thirty-nine QTLs related to leaf rolling index and leaf withering degree were identified, and QTLs were found on all chromosomes except chromosomes 6, 10, and 11. qLWD4-1 was detected after 32 days and 46 days of drought stress in 2017 and explained 7.07–8.19% of the phenotypic variation. Two loci, qLRI2-2 and qLWD4-2, were identified after 29, 42, and 57 days of drought stress in 2018. These loci explained 10.59–17.04% and 5.14–5.71% of the phenotypic variation, respectively. There were 281 genes within the QTL interval. Through gene functional annotation and expression analysis, two candidate genes, Os04g0574600 and OsCHR731, were found. Quantitative reverse transcription PCR analysis showed that the expression levels of these genes were significantly higher under drought stress than under normal conditions, indicating positive regulation. Notably, Os04g0574600 was a newly discovered drought tolerance gene. Haplotype analysis showed that the RIL population carried two haplotypes (Hap1 and Hap2) of both genes. Lines carrying Hap2 exhibited significantly or extremely stronger drought tolerance than those carrying Hap1, indicating that Hap2 is an excellent haplotype. Among rice germplasm resources, there were two and three haplotypes of Os04g0574600 and OsCHR731, respectively. A high proportion of local rice resources in Sichuan, Yunnan, Anhui, Guangdong and Fujian provinces had Hap of both genes. In wild rice, 50% of accessions contained Hap1 of Os04g0574600 and 50% carried Hap4; 13.51%, 59.46% and 27.03% of wild rice accessions contained Hap1, Hap2, and Hap3, respectively. Hap2 of Os04g0574600 was found in more indica rice resources than in japonica rice. Therefore, Hap2 has more potential for utilization in future drought tolerance breeding of japonica rice.

The necessity of coupling the legacy effect with temperature response in crop phenology models