Genetic control strategies for population suppression in the Anopheles gambiae complex: a review of current technologies.

Summary of human West Nile virus vaccine meeting, 2024: Investigating barriers to development.

Suppression of choroidal neovascularization by nonviral gene transfer of pigment epithelium-derived factor.

Multiple organisms infect the host simultaneously in the case of coinfection. This study intended to determine the prevalence of viral hepatitis B in HIV/Asymptomatic VL co-infected patients and to identify the HBV genotype circulating in these patients in Bihar, India. There were 96 archived samples with co-infection with HIV and asymptomatic VLpositivity included in this study. A real-time PCR test was performed to measure the load of HBV DNA, and a chemiluminescent immunoassay was performed to determine the level of HBsAg. Our study evaluated HIV and AVL co-infected patients with two coexisting genotypes of HBV and observed the expression of the B, C, and D genotypes. HBsAg levels correlated directly with HBV DNA levels in almost every case. For a better understanding of this disease, authors need approaches and strategies for improving the current diagnostic techniques, as well as studies focusing on vector control procedures and other operational tools.

Malaria remains a major public health challenge in Nigeria, particularly in Rivers State, where complex hydro-ecological conditions, rapid urbanization, and inadequate environmental management reinforce persistent transmission. This study applies Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) techniques to assess malaria susceptibility across the 23 Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Rivers State using a multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) framework. Environmental and climatic parameters—including elevation, slope, rainfall, soil type, land use/land cover (LULC), vegetation indices (NDVI), flow direction and accumulation, proximity to water bodies, and concentration of waste dumpsites—were integrated to model spatial patterns of mosquito breeding suitability and malaria risk.Satellite imagery (Landsat, Sentinel-2, CHIRPS rainfall data, and SRTM elevation data) and ancillary datasets were processed to generate thematic layers for weighted overlay analysis. Results reveal that low-lying areas with poorly drained soils, wetlands, high rainfall, dense vegetation, and high dumpsite concentration exhibit the highest malaria susceptibility. The spatial risk classification shows that six LGAs—Port Harcourt, Obio/Akpor, Eleme, Oyigbo, Tai, and Ogu/Bolo—fall within the high-vulnerability zone. Twelve LGAs exhibit moderate vulnerability, while five LGAs located in higher or better-drained terrains show low susceptibility. The study highlights the strong influence of hydrological and anthropogenic factors on malaria transmission dynamics. The resulting susceptibility and vulnerability maps provide essential tools for targeted vector control, improved drainage planning, environmental sanitation, and resource allocation. By integrating health records with environmental datasets, the study offers a robust spatial decision-support framework for malaria control and public health planning in Rivers State.

Tungro disease poses a serious threat to rice cultivation, as it is caused by a viral infection transmitted by green leafhoppers. This study develops a mathematical model to describe the spread of tungro disease by incorporating plant growth phases and control measures such as roguing. The model divides the system into two subpopulations: plants (susceptible and infected in both vegetative and generative phases) and vectors (susceptible and infected). Dynamic analysis identifies two equilibrium conditions, namely a disease-free state and an endemic state. The disease-free equilibrium is stable when the basic reproduction number is less than one, whereas the endemic equilibrium becomes stable when the reproduction number exceeds one. Sensitivity analysis using the Partial Rank Correlation Coefficient method shows that the infectivity rate and the roguing rate are the most influential parameters affecting disease transmission. An optimal control framework based on Pontryagin’s Maximum Principle is then applied to determine the most effective roguing and vector control strategies. Simulation results indicate that applying roguing during the vegetative phase markedly reduces the number of infected plants and suppresses disease spread. These findings demonstrate that combining dynamic modeling, sensitivity analysis, and optimal control provides an effective and efficient strategy for managing tungro disease in rice crops.

Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) are among the most important vectors transmitting medically significant pathogens and parasites to humans and animals. This study aimed to determine the species composition, distribution, and relative abundance of mosquito fauna in the Eastern and Middle Black Sea regions of Türkiye between 2014 and 2022. A total of 46081 adult specimens were collected from 1700 sampling points in 513 localities across 14 provinces using larval dipping, light traps, BG-Sentinel traps, and human landing catches. Morphological identification revealed 31 mosquito species belonging to six genera: Aedes, Anopheles, Culex, Culiseta, Orthopodomyia, and Uranotaenia. Aedes albopictus was the most abundant species (40.5%), followed by Culex pipiens s.l. (37.3%) and Anopheles maculipennis s.l. (5.75%). The highest species richness was observed in Rize, Artvin, and Samsun, while Ordu and Amasya showed the lowest diversity indices. The widespread occurrence of the invasive Aedes albopictus and its rapid expansion across the region highlights the increasing risk of arboviral transmission, particularly for West Nile virus, dengue, and chikungunya. Climatic factors, vegetation types, land use, and vertebrate host availability appeared to influence spatial distribution and diversity patterns. The findings underline the necessity for continuous entomological surveillance and vector control strategies to mitigate potential mosquito-borne disease risks in this ecologically sensitive region.

Indoor residual spraying (IRS) remains a core malaria vector control intervention, but widespread insecticide resistance threatens its effectiveness. VECTRON™ T500, containing broflanilide, represents a novel IRS product with a new mode of action targeting GABA receptors. A two-arm non-inferiority study was conducted in Bar Olengo, Siaya County, Kenya, between June and November 2024. Twenty-five structures per arm were sprayed with either VECTRON™ T500 (100mg a.i/m2) or Actellic™ 300CS (1g a.i/m2), with five water-sprayed controls. Residual efficacy was assessed using world health organization (WHO) cone bioassays with pyrethroid-resistant Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto (s.s.) Bungoma strain and susceptible Kisumu strain monthly for six months. Wild vector susceptibility to insecticides, community acceptability, and adverse events were evaluated. VECTRON™ T500 maintained significantly higher mortality than Actellic™ 300CS throughout six months on both wall types. Against resistant An. gambiae s.s. Bungoma strain, VECTRON™ T500 achieved 98.73 ± 3.51% mortality (95% CI 97.95-99.51%) compared to 80.22 ± 11.23% for Actellic™ 300CS (95% CI 77.72-82.72%; t₇₈ = -10.15, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 2.27). For susceptible Kisumu strain, VECTRON™ T500 maintained 100% mortality versus 89.60 ± 6.34% for Actellic™ 300CS (95% CI 88.19-91.01%; t₇₈ = 10.53, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 2.38). Actellic™ 300CS efficacy declined below 80% after month 4, while VECTRON™ T500 remained > 95% effective throughout. Wild An. gambiae sensu lato (s.l.) and Anopheles funestus s.l. showed 100% susceptibility to broflanilide with no cross-resistance detected. No adverse events occurred in VECTRON™ T500 households versus 8% (12/150) in Actellic™ 300CS households. Community acceptance was 100% for VECTRON™ T500 versus 99.33% (149/150) for Actellic™ 300CS, though this difference was not statistically significant. VECTRON™ T500 demonstrated superior residual efficacy, excellent safety profile, and high community acceptance compared to Actellic™ 300CS. Its novel mode of action and absence of cross-resistance to pirimiphos-methyl and pyrethroids make it valuable for insecticide resistance management in malaria vector control programmes.

Abstract The Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is currently implicated as a public health threat in Iraq. This perspective study explored the increasing CCHF case during the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as climate change, human-animal conflict during festivities. It mainly spreads through contact with infected humans/animals and by Hyalomma ticks. A single health approach that takes into account man and animal as well as environmental science and economics. Rural healthcare, vector control and public awareness must be strengthened. It is important to continue cross-border cooperation and research about diagnosis, treatment, and vaccine development to control CCHF in Iraq and the region.

Control of dengue vectors with synthetic pyrethroids is employed worldwide but development of pyrethroid resistance in Aedes mosquitoes is a big challenge for successful prevention of dengue. Pyrethroids are of two types: type I (devoid of α-cyano group) and type II (contain α-cyano group) which differ in their toxic effect. Therefore, this study investigated potential difference in the cytochrome P450 monooxygenase (CYP) mediated resistance status against two types of synthetic pyrethroids in wild Aedes (Ae.) albopictus populations from dengue endemic sub-Himalayan West Bengal. The role of CYPs in resistance development was studied through synergist assay and gene expression studies. Widespread resistance was observed against permethrin (type I) and lambdacyhalothrin (type II) in studied populations. Use of Piperonyl Butoxide (PBO) in synergist assay restored susceptibility to both the insecticides and confirmed involvement of CYP in observed resistance. Differential overexpression of three CYP genes, CYP6P12, CYP6A8 and CYP6N3 was observed in all populations and population specific differential induction of CYP6P12 and CYP6A8 upon permethrin and lambdacyhalothrin exposure was also noted. These findings indicate occurrence of monooxygenase mediated pyrethroid resistance in Ae. albopictus populations from this region. Use of monooxygenase blockers can improve the efficacy of pyrethroids for control of this vector.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-26695-6.

Malaria vectors reproduce through in-flight copulation within swarms, which remains poorly understood. Gaining insights into swarming and mating behavior is essential for optimizing novel vector control strategies including sterile insect technique, genetically modified mosquitoes, and behavior based intervention. This study investigates the factors influencing swarm dynamics and mating efficiency in Anopheles coluzzii. We surveyed swarms across 40 residential compounds in Burkina Faso, georeferencing swarming sites and recording swarming times and height. In a subset of three compounds selected for detailed characterization, we also measured inter-swarm distances, counted swarm size from photography, and mating pairs through direct observation during swarming. Furthermore, we collected 30% of male mosquitoes from swarms to measure wing length and perform PCR analyses. We monitored environmental variables including temperature, humidity, wind speed, and luminosity. Finally, we performed spatial and statistical analysis using ArcGIS and R to determine how swarm and mating dynamics are correlated and how they depend on biological and environmental conditions. We identified 169 Anopheles coluzzii swarms and found strong evidence of spatial clustering (General G: P < 0.001; Moran's I = 0.2, P < 0.001), with localized hotspots. Swarming occurred between 18:05h and 18:45h, extending into darkness at ~19:15h. Swarms had an average height of 2.87m (range: 1.0-3.2m) and consisted of 83-2783 mosquitoes. Swarm size strongly predicted pairing success in Anopheles coluzzii (t = 9.16, P < 0.001) with larger swarms producing more pairs. However, individual pairing efficiency decreased with swarm size (t = -3.515, P < 0.001). Male size positively influenced individual pairing efficiency (t = 3.25, P = 0.002) but did not affect swarm size or total pairing frequency. Inter-swarm distances varied nonrandomly, suggesting interactions between neighboring and/or swarm markers. This study shows that An. coluzzii swarming is shaped by both biological and environmental factors. While larger males achieved higher individual mating efficiency, swarm size was the strongest predictor of mating success. Larger swarms yielded more mating pairs overall, although efficiency declined with increasing density. In addition, swarms formed in clustered nonrandom patterns within compounds. These results highlight the interplay between male traits and environment in shaping swarming dynamics.

ObjectiveSecondary brain injury following subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is a major factor contributing to poor patient outcomes, with neuroinflammation and cerebral edema representing core pathological mechanisms. Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 (TREM1), a major inflammatory amplifier in innate immunity, remains poorly understood in SAH regarding its specific role, cellular targets, and association with aquaporin-4 (AQP4), a key molecule involved in cerebral edema. To determine how TREM1 governs neuroinflammatory injury after experimental SAH and to investigate whether it acts by driving microglial activation and modulating AQP4 expression.MethodsAn SAH model was established in rats via internal carotid artery puncture. TREM1 expression was specifically upregulated or downregulated in vivo through lateral ventricle injection of adeno-associated virus (AAV). Animals were randomly allocated to sham surgery, SAH empty vector control, SAH TREM1 overexpression, and SAH TREM1 knockdown groups. Twenty-four hours post-SAH, neurological function was evaluated with the modified Garcia score and balance beam test; brain water content was quantified from the wet-to-dry weight ratio; HE-stained sections were examined for neuronal morphology; western blot and real-time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR) were employed to detect the expressions of TREM1, Iba1, GFAP, AQP4, NeuN, cleaved Caspase-3, IL-6, and IL-13; immunofluorescence staining was performed for localization and semi-quantitative analysis.ResultsFollowing subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), TREM1 expression is significantly upregulated in brain tissue, with its levels negatively correlated with neurological deficits. Functional and molecular studies demonstrate that TREM1 inhibition improves neurological function, reduces cerebral edema, and mitigates neuronal apoptosis, whereas overexpression exacerbates injury. Mechanistic studies reveal that TREM1 exacerbates secondary brain injury by promoting microglial hyperactivation and inflammatory responses, while simultaneously upregulating astrocytic AQP4 expression.ConclusionThis study preliminarily indicates that TREM1 inhibition is associated with reduced neuroinflammation and concomitant downregulation of AQP4. These findings suggest that the “TREM1–AQP4” axis may represent an intrinsically connected pathological pathway that jointly contributes to brain injury following SAH. Although this hypothesis requires direct validation, targeting TREM1 demonstrates potential therapeutic value in improving outcomes through synergistic anti-inflammatory and anti-edematous effects.

As one of the most aggressive disease vectors, the Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus relies heavily on its olfactory system to search for food in the larval stage, locate hosts after eclosion, and identify suitable oviposition sites after blood feeding. In mosquitoes and other insects, the olfactory system detects environmental odors primarily through a diverse repertoire of odorant receptors (ORs), which require the highly conserved odorant receptor co-receptor (Orco) to function. While Orco's role in enabling receptor function is well established, its cellular localization patterns, developmental expression dynamics, and system-wide impact on olfactory physiology and behavior remain understudied in Ae. albopictus. To address this knowledge gap, we leveraged the Q-system to systematically characterize Orco-expressing neurons across embryonic, larval, and adult stages of Ae. albopictus. Orco-expressing neurons were observed as early as in the embryonic stage and proliferated during larval development. Orco expression in adults spanned the olfactory neurons of the antennae, labella, and maxillary palps in both male and female mosquitoes, consistent with its conserved peripheral distribution across various mosquito species. To further investigate the functional implications of Orco, we generated Orco knockout mutants and strikingly discovered that Orco knockout mutants displayed significant widespread downregulation of ORs, suggesting that Orco may influence ORs' expression or stability. Electrophysiological recordings confirmed significantly attenuated responses to human volatiles in Orco mutants, and behavioral assays demonstrated a marked decline in blood-feeding efficiency and decrease of human preference in females. Together, these findings reveal dynamic organization of ORNs during mosquito development and uncover the critical role of Orco in maintaining the integrity and function of the olfactory system, providing insights which may inform novel, next-generation vector control strategies.

In response to the demands for high reliability, excellent dynamic response, and high-precision control of advanced aircraft actuation systems, this study focuses on the control technology for the master-master operating mode of dual-redundancy electro-hydrostatic actuation (EHA) systems. A multi-domain coupling model integrating motor magnetic circuit saturation, hydraulic viscosity-temperature characteristics, and mechanical clearances was established, based on which a current-loop decoupling technique using vector control was developed. Furthermore, the study combined adaptive sliding mode control (ASMC) and an improved active disturbance rejection control (ADRC) to enhance the robustness of the speed loop and the disturbance rejection capability of the position loop, respectively. To address the key challenges of synchronous error accumulation and uneven load distribution in the master-master mode, a dual-redundancy dynamic model accounting for hydraulic coupling effects was developed, and a two-level cooperative control strategy of "position synchronization-dynamic load balancing" was proposed based on the cross-coupling control (CCC) framework. Experimental results demonstrate that the position loop control error is less than ±0.02 mm, and the load distribution accuracy is improved to over 97%, fully meeting the design requirements of advanced aircraft. These findings provide key technical support for the engineering application of power-by-wire flight control systems in advanced aircraft.

Aedes aegypti is the primary urban vector for several important arboviruses, including dengue, chikungunya, yellow fever, and Zika viruses. Traditional dengue virus (DENV) surveillance relies on passive reporting of human cases, which often underestimates transmission due to asymptomatic or unreported infections. This study evaluated the utility of monitoring DENV in Ae. aegypti mosquitoes to improve detection of local dengue transmission and inform vector control strategies during the 2024 dengue epidemic in Puerto Rico. Mosquito surveillance was conducted in 15 neighborhoods within the San Juan metropolitan area where confirmed dengue cases had been recently reported. Adult female Ae. aegypti were collected weekly using Autocidal Gravid Ovitraps (AGO traps) placed within a 200 m radius of index cases. Pools of 1–20 mosquitoes were tested for DENV RNA and serotype using RT-PCR. Surveillance continued for up to 91 days in study areas, depending on virus detection. A total of 29,354 female Ae. aegypti were collected, of which 29,211 females were pooled (1–20 specimens per pool) into 3878 pools and analyzed. DENV was detected in 49 pools across 11 neighborhoods, with serotypes DENV-1, DENV-2, and DENV-3 identified. Multiple serotypes were sometimes detected in mosquitoes from the same neighborhood. Minimum infection rates and vector indices were higher during the epidemic than in previous inter-epidemic periods, and mosquito densities exceeded thresholds considered protective against outbreaks. Entomo-virological surveillance detected a greater variety and evenness of serotypes than passive human surveillance. These findings suggest that entomo-virological surveillance can complement passive case surveillance, providing a more comprehensive detection of DENV circulation. Integrating mosquito-based and human surveillance can improve outbreak detection, guide vector control, and aid in reducing dengue burden in affected communities.

To enhance the operational efficiency of energy storage converters in grid-connected systems with high renewable penetration, this study systematically investigates key technologies of active neutral-point clamped (ANPC) topology under “electrical–thermal–mechanical” multi-physical field coupling. The study reviews recent progress in structural design, modulation strategies, and fault-tolerant control, highlighting their impact on efficiency, reliability, and power density. At the structural stage, a hybrid SiC/IGBT device configuration combined with a three-dimensional stacked bus reduces conduction loss and achieves parasitic inductance. In the modulation stage, improved finite-set model predictive control and adaptive space vector modulation shorten computation time to 20 µs and keep total harmonic distortion (THD) within 2.8%. System-level evaluations demonstrate that a 250 kW ANPC converter attains a peak efficiency of 99.1%, a power density of 4.5 kW/kg, and a mean time between failure exceeding 150,000 h. These findings reveal a clear transition from single-objective performance improvement toward integrated multi-physics co-design. By unifying advanced modulation, intelligent fault-tolerant control, and multi-field coupling optimization, ANPC-based converters advance converters to a new stage of higher efficiency, reliability, and stability. The results provide essential technical support for next-generation power conversion systems in renewable-rich grids.

Adequate lipid storage capacity is crucial for animal reproductive success, especially in female mosquitoes, which must accumulate sufficient lipid reserves to support egg production. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating lipid accumulation and the consequences of inadequate lipid stores remain poorly understood. Here, we show that stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (desat1) is indispensable for lipid reserve establishment and metabolic balance in female Anopheles and Aedes mosquitoes. Knockdown of desat1 of newly emerged females results in high mortality following a blood meal, whereas silencing desat1 of older mosquitoes does not affect survival. Moreover, desat1 activity of early-emerged females is essential for egg production and peritrophic matrix integrity. Lipidomic analyses reveal that silencing desat1 impairs the conversion of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) to unsaturated fatty acids (USFAs), disrupting triglyceride synthesis and leading to SFA accumulation. After blood feeding, accumulated SFAs induce lipotoxicity, characterized by elevated oxidative stress and apoptosis. We further find that blood meal-derived proteins stimulate the 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) signaling pathway, thereby exacerbating fatty acid β-oxidation, increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and inducing extensive apoptotic cell death in desat1-silenced early-emerged females, ultimately leading to mortality. Our findings reveal Desat1 as a critical metabolic safeguard against hormone-induced lipotoxicity in blood-feeding insects, establishing a novel mechanistic link between classical lipid metabolism and steroid hormone signaling, and identifying desat1 as a promising target for vector control strategies.

Vector control is an essential component of malaria prevention that has contributed to the reduction in malaria burden since 2000. Although steady progress in malaria vector control has been achieved over the years, the malaria burden remains substantial, underscoring the need for complementary mosquito control tools to further reduce transmission. Attractive targeted sugar baits (ATSBs) are a novel vector control tool under evaluation. The ATSB paradigm leverages the sugar feeding and resting behavior of mosquitoes exposing them to the lethal effect of an added insecticide. Prior to epidemiological trials on ATSBs in western Kenya, validation studies were conducted to assess the levels of mosquito feeding on attractive sugar baits (ASBs), containing uranine dye. This study sought to understand the ATSB deployment required in peridomestic spaces and to determine the daily feeding rates that would be potentially sufficient to impact malaria transmission (based on modelling approaches). The study evaluated whether the deployment of two versus three bait stations per structure led to higher daily feeding rates by local malaria vectors that is consistent with the modelled threshold of 2.5% of all mosquitoes in the target area as a proxy for ATSB efficacy resulting in a 30% drop in clinical incidence in children under 5. The study followed a cross-over design in ten treatment and two control clusters within Rarieda Sub-County, Siaya County, western Kenya. Within each intervention cluster, either two or three ASBs were deployed to all structures in each cluster. After two months, the treatments were switched so that clusters which initially received two ASBs were given three ASBs and vice versa. ASB monitoring was done for four months during the initial crossover trial and then for an additional four months for extended monitoring. Mosquitoes were collected using ultraviolet CDC light traps and Prokopack aspiration indoors and outdoors then identified based on morphological characteristics and screened for fluorescence due to the uranine dye. Molecular species identification was done using polymerase chain reaction and sporozoite infectivity tests by Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Data analysis was performed using R statistical software. The predominant malaria vector was An. funestus sensu lato (s.l.), which had an overall dye feeding rate of 11.2%. This was followed by An. gambiae s.l. at 3.5%. These corresponded to daily feeding rates of 4.8% and 1.2%, respectively. Sporozoite positivity rates were 2.3% (n = 29) in An. funestus s.l and 1.0% (n = 19) in An. gambiae s.l. Higher dye positivity was observed in male An. funestus (OR = 1.22; 95% CI = 1.03,1.46; P = 0.029) and male An. gambiae (OR = 2.20; 95% CI = 1.19,4.08; P = 0.015). Comparison of the impact of 2 versus 3 bait stations indicated no difference in feeding rates in either An. funestus (OR = 0.83; 95% CI = 0.40; 1.75), P = 0.624) or An. gambiae (OR = 1.11; 95% CI = 0.71, 1.71; P = 0.661). The results from this study showed that predominant malaria vectors; Anopheles funestus led to a daily feeding rate that was presumed to be sufficient to cause a reduction in malaria incidence by ATSBs. There was no significant difference detected between deploying two or three bait stations per structure. The study provided important information utilized in the subsequent deployment of ATSBs in epidemiological trials.

BackgroundVector control is an essential component of malaria prevention that has contributed to the reduction in malaria burden since 2000. Although steady progress in malaria vector control has been achieved over the years, the malaria burden remains substantial, underscoring the need for complementary mosquito control tools to further reduce transmission. Attractive targeted sugar baits (ATSBs) are a novel vector control tool under evaluation. The ATSB paradigm leverages the sugar feeding and resting behavior of mosquitoes exposing them to the lethal effect of an added insecticide. Prior to epidemiological trials on ATSBs in western Kenya, validation studies were conducted to assess the levels of mosquito feeding on attractive sugar baits (ASBs), containing uranine dye. This study sought to understand the ATSB deployment required in peridomestic spaces and to determine the daily feeding rates that would be potentially sufficient to impact malaria transmission (based on modelling approaches). The study evaluated whether the deployment of two versus three bait stations per structure led to higher daily feeding rates by local malaria vectors that is consistent with the modelled threshold of 2.5% of all mosquitoes in the target area as a proxy for ATSB efficacy resulting in a 30% drop in clinical incidence in children under 5.MethodsThe study followed a cross-over design in ten treatment and two control clusters within Rarieda Sub-County, Siaya County, western Kenya. Within each intervention cluster, either two or three ASBs were deployed to all structures in each cluster. After two months, the treatments were switched so that clusters which initially received two ASBs were given three ASBs and vice versa. ASB monitoring was done for four months during the initial crossover trial and then for an additional four months for extended monitoring. Mosquitoes were collected using ultraviolet CDC light traps and Prokopack aspiration indoors and outdoors then identified based on morphological characteristics and screened for fluorescence due to the uranine dye. Molecular species identification was done using polymerase chain reaction and sporozoite infectivity tests by Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Data analysis was performed using R statistical software.ResultsThe predominant malaria vector was An. funestus sensu lato (s.l.), which had an overall dye feeding rate of 11.2%. This was followed by An. gambiae s.l. at 3.5%. These corresponded to daily feeding rates of 4.8% and 1.2%, respectively. Sporozoite positivity rates were 2.3% (n = 29) in An. funestus s.l and 1.0% (n = 19) in An. gambiae s.l. Higher dye positivity was observed in male An. funestus (OR = 1.22; 95% CI = 1.03,1.46; P = 0.029) and male An. gambiae (OR = 2.20; 95% CI = 1.19,4.08; P = 0.015). Comparison of the impact of 2 versus 3 bait stations indicated no difference in feeding rates in either An. funestus (OR = 0.83; 95% CI = 0.40; 1.75), P = 0.624) or An. gambiae (OR = 1.11; 95% CI = 0.71, 1.71; P = 0.661).ConclusionsThe results from this study showed that predominant malaria vectors; Anopheles funestus led to a daily feeding rate that was presumed to be sufficient to cause a reduction in malaria incidence by ATSBs. There was no significant difference detected between deploying two or three bait stations per structure. The study provided important information utilized in the subsequent deployment of ATSBs in epidemiological trials.

Insecticide resistance in insects poses a serious problem in population control of arthropod vectors and spreaders of human and animal diseases. Metabolic resistance to insecticides is facilitated by detoxification system enzymes, including glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs) involved in phase II of xenobiotic biotransformation. The aim of this study was to analyze the glutathione-S-transferase activity and the expression level of different class GST genes in Musca domestica. The test subjects were larvae and 3–5-day-old adults of a laboratory susceptible strain (LabTY) and a field deltamethrin-tolerant population (Nik). Based on the LC50 values, the Nik strain showed sensitivity to chlorpyrifos and chlorfenapyr and tolerance to deltamethrin with a remarkable increase in the level of resistance in males compared to females. Expression analysis of eight GST genes revealed that the expression of the GST-E12 gene (Epsilon class) was significantly elevated and the GST-S1 gene (Sigma class) was significantly decreased in the Nik strain across all groups (larvae, females, and males), with the most pronounced difference in females. A pronounced sexual dimorphism was observed: the expression of most GST genes was significantly higher in males than in females in both strains. For the first time, a consistent male-specific overexpression of multiple GST genes has been demonstrated in M. domestica.