Combination of ionizable lipids with oleic acid and vitamin E scaffolds for RNA cancer vaccine delivery.

The human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination program is a key component of cancer prevention in the UK, yet uptake remains uneven across regions and social groups. General practice nurses are strategically positioned to improve coverage through vaccination delivery, health promotion and patient education. This article examines the epidemiology of HPV, the spectrum of related diseases and recent policy developments, including the transition to a simplified one-dose schedule for healthy adolescents and increased eligibility among boys and high-risk groups. It also outlines recommended schedules, catch-up strategies and practical guidance for managing immunocompromised patients. Emphasis is placed on addressing vaccine hesitancy, countering misinformation and communicating benefits empathetically and inclusively. By integrating clinical competence with effective communication, nurses can maximise the public health impact of the HPV vaccination programme and reduce the burden of HPV-related disease.

Public attitudes towards intranasal and ultrasound mediated vaccine delivery: A cross-sectional study in the United Kingdom and United States.

Graphene oxide (GO) has evolved from a laboratory curiosity into a practical and multifunctional material against viral threats. Owing to its large surface area, adjustable surface chemistry, sharp-edged 2D morphology,...

Safety and immunogenicity of a novel psittacine beak and feather disease vaccine and optimisation of a thermostable spray-dried formulation.

Biohybrid nanocarriers for targeted drug delivery by integrating biological interfaces with synthetic platforms for site-specific therapeutics.

Immunization remains a vital pillar of Nigeria’s public health agenda, significantly reducing the burden of vaccine-preventable diseases. However, the success of immunization programs hinges not only on vaccine access and delivery but also on robust post-vaccination surveillance systems that ensure vaccine safety and foster public confidence. In Nigeria, post-vaccination pharmacovigilance, led by the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC), faces critical challenges, including underreporting of adverse events following immunization (AEFIs), inadequate healthcare worker training, infrastructural limitations, and the widespread influence of misinformation. These systemic weaknesses threaten to undermine vaccine confidence, particularly in underserved and rural areas. The aim of this study was to examine the current state of Nigeria’s post-vaccination surveillance infrastructure, highlighting gaps in AEFI reporting and data management. Drawing on global best practices and successful models from other low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), this study proposes a set of strategic interventions to strengthen pharmacovigilance. These include the adoption of digital and mobile health technologies, capacity building for healthcare providers, community engagement, and integration of artificial intelligence in safety signal detection. This study underscores the urgency of regulatory reform and private sector inclusion, advocating a holistic and sustainable approach to vaccine safety monitoring. By reinforcing pharmacovigilance systems, Nigeria can build public confidence, improve vaccine uptake, and enhance the overall effectiveness of its national immunization program.

Recent advances in microneedle array patch (MAP) technology have highlighted its potential for efficient and accessible vaccine delivery. In this study, we developed a pillar-guided MAP (PG-MAP) loaded with a recombinant vaccinia virus (r-DIs-S) expressing the SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) gene. Our fabrication method enabled precise localization of a high viral titer (> 9.4 ± 1.8 × 10⁶ PFU per patch), as verified by plaque assay. In vivo immunization in mice demonstrated that the r-DIs-S-loaded PG-MAP elicited robust S-protein-specific IgG and neutralizing antibody responses. Upon SARS-CoV-2 challenge, all PG-MAP-immunized mice survived and maintained their body weight, whereas the control groups experienced severe results. These results demonstrated that the PG-MAP platform enables precise dosing, maintains viral stability, and induces potent protective immunity, offering a promising alternative for decentralized, minimally invasive vaccination strategies against emerging infectious diseases.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-29183-z.

Poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)-based microneedles for drug delivery across different biological barriers.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a major causative agent of cervical and other mucosal cancers. However, the distribution and accessibility of current prophylactic vaccines remain limited, especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), due to high production costs, cold-chain dependency, and limited induction of mucosal immune responses. To addressing these challenges, we designed a rationally constructed multi-epitope HPV vaccine (HPV_MEV) incorporating conserved cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL), helper T lymphocyte (HTL), and B-cell epitopes from diverse high- and low-risk HPV genotypes. The construct includes the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) agonist RS09 to enhance innate immune activation and cholera toxin B subunit (CTB) as a mucosal adjuvant to facilitate uptake and presentation at mucosal surfaces. The codon-optimized gene was stably integrated into the chloroplast genome of Nicotiana tabacum via biolistic transformation. Molecular analyses confirmed site-specific integration, homoplasmy, and high-level antigen accumulation (~3.6 mg/g fresh weight; ~20.8% of total soluble protein). Immunogenicity was evaluated in BALB/c mice following intraperitoneal administration of purified antigen or oral gavage of lyophilized transplastomic leaf tissue. Oral administration induced antigen-specific systemic IgG and mucosal IgA responses, with higher levels of vaginal IgA observed compared with parenteral delivery, reflecting enhanced mucosal antibody induction. The chloroplast-produced HPV_MEV exhibited immunogenicity comparable to its E. coli-expressed counterpart, supporting its structural and functional integrity. Overall, this study demonstrates the feasibility of plastid biotechnology as a platform for producing a thermostable, orally deliverable HPV vaccine candidate and provides preliminary immunogenicity data supporting its application as a promising vaccine candidate for accessible vaccination strategies against HPV and other mucosally transmitted pathogens in resource-limited settings.

Transcriptomic profiling reveals early immune activation and metabolic remodeling in lymphoid tissues following in ovo Marek's disease virus mRNA vaccination in chickens.

The COVID-19 pandemic greatly affected global health and economies. While vaccines have helped reduce mortality from the disease, the inability to prevent its transmission hinders full eradication. Mucosal vaccines capable of preventing virus transmission, hence, are urgently needed. A possible approach involves using Bacillus subtilis, a safe Gram-positive bacterium, as a bacterial spore vaccine delivery platform. Using this approach, the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein is engineered to be expressed in B. subtilis during bacterial sporulation. The recombinant bacterial spores, when used to immunize Balb/c mice, triggered significant immune responses. Two weeks after the second dose, mice showed elevated levels of SARS-CoV-2 spike-specific IgM, IgG, and sIgA. The immunization also boosted CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses. Pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IFN-γ, IL-2, and TNF-α, as well as anti-inflammatory cytokines like IL-10, were also upregulated upon restimulation with spike protein peptides. Additionally, serum from the immunized mice showed neutralizing activity against SARS-CoV-2. These findings suggest that B. subtilis spores expressing the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein can induce both humoral and cellular immunity, making them a promising platform for developing mucosal vaccines against SARS-CoV-2.

Background/Objectives: Cervical cancer is a leading cause of cancer-related mortality among women, primarily driven by persistent infections with high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV), particularly HPV-16. Vaccines based on plasmid DNA encoding the viral oncogenes E6 and E7 represent a promising immunotherapeutic strategy, but their efficacy remains limited due to poor cellular uptake. Cell-penetrating peptides such as RALA improve intracellular delivery, and functionalization with octa-arginine peptide conjugated to mannose (R8M) further enhances targeting of antigen-presenting cells (APCs). This study aimed to obtain the minicircle DNA (mcDNA) encoding mutant HPV-16 E6 and/or E7 antigens, and optimize its complexation with mannosylated RALA-based nanoparticles to improve vector delivery and consequently antigen presentation. Methods: Nanoparticles were formulated at different concentrations of RALA, with and without R8M functionalization. Their characterization included hydrodynamic diameter, polydispersity index, zeta potential, complexation efficiency (CE), stability, morphology, and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. In vitro assays in JAWS II dendritic cells (DCs) assessed biocompatibility, transfection efficiency and target gene expression. Results: Optimal conditions were obtained at 72.5 µg/mL of RALA, producing nanoparticles smaller than 150 nm with high CE (>97%) and uniform size distribution. Functionalization with R8M at 58 µg/mL preserved these characteristics when complexed with all mcDNA vectors. The formulations were biocompatible and effectively transfected DCs. Mannosylated formulations enhanced antigenic expression compared to non-mannosylated counterparts, evidencing a mannose-receptor-mediated uptake, while increasing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Conclusions: Nanoparticles based on the RALA peptide and functionalized with R8M significantly improved mcDNA transfection and gene expression in APCs. These findings support further investigation of this system as a targeted DNA vector delivery platform against HPV-16.

Adolescent vaccination is a critical component of preventive public health strategies, yet persistent inequities in vaccine coverage continue to affect adolescents in Latin America. This review examines patterns of inequality in adolescent immunization coverage, with a multiregional focus on Mexico, Colombia, and Ecuador. Drawing on peer-reviewed literature, regional policy reports, and international immunization datasets, the study analyzes temporal trends, socioeconomic and geographic disparities, and differences associated with vaccination delivery platforms. The findings indicate that adolescent vaccination coverage shows incomplete recovery over time and remains strongly patterned by social determinants, including socioeconomic position, urban–rural residence, and linkage to school-based delivery systems. School-based vaccination strategies are associated with higher coverage, while facility-based and outreach approaches demonstrate greater vulnerability to access barriers. Structural and organizational factors, such as service availability and missed vaccination opportunities, appear to contribute more substantially to inequities than vaccine hesitancy alone. Overall, the results highlight that improvements in national coverage averages mask persistent disparities affecting disadvantaged adolescent populations. Addressing these inequities requires equity-oriented immunization strategies that integrate delivery platforms, strengthen monitoring systems, and prioritize adolescents in vulnerable social and territorial contexts.

Porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED), a highly contagious intestinal disease caused by PEDV, threatens newborn piglets and causes enormous losses in the swine industry. Intestinal mucosal immunity is vital for defense against PEDV. Chitosan (CS), a mucin-adhesive biodegradable polysaccharide, has emerged as a promising mucosal vaccine delivery vector and antigen adjuvant. To develop a PEDV mucosal vaccine, we prepared S1-CS nanoparticles (NPs) loaded with the S1 domain of the PEDV spike (S) protein. We evaluated their ability to induce mucosal immune responses in mice via different inoculation routes and to confer immune protection in piglets after oral inoculation. The results showed that S1-CS NPs exhibited no cytotoxicity and remained stable in simulated gastric fluid in vitro. Compared with oral administration, intramuscular inoculation of S1-CS NPs induced higher levels of PEDV-specific serum IgG in mice. However, PEDV-specific IgA was detected only in the serum and intestinal lavage fluid of orally vaccinated mice. Oral administration also elicited higher IFN-γ levels than intramuscular injection, suggesting stronger activation of cellular immunity. In piglets, oral S1-CS NPs induced serum neutralizing antibodies and IgA responses in both serum and intestinal mucosa, increased the number of IgA-secreting cells in the intestine, reduced viremia and virus shedding, and improved intestinal villus morphology. These findings indicate that the S1-CS NPs developed in this study represent promising candidates for an oral mucosal PEDV vaccine.

Conventional cancer treatments often fail due to the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, immune tolerance, and chronic inflammation. Therefore, new therapeutic approaches are urgently needed. Cancer vaccines can stimulate natural killer cells and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and induce long-lasting memory responses that help overcome the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Recent advances in nucleic acid, peptide, and dendritic cell-based vaccines have improved antigen delivery and immune activation, while combinations with immune checkpoint inhibitors and ablative therapies enhance therapeutic efficacy and durability. Preclinical and clinical studies targeting tumor-associated antigens have shown promising outcomes. With poor survival rates and limited treatment options, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) appears to be the most prevalent cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Advances in antigen discovery, vaccine delivery systems, and synergistic combination strategies are paving the way for more effective and durable immune responses. By integrating molecular insights with clinical innovation, cancer vaccines hold the potential not only to improve treatment outcomes but also to redefine long-term disease management and survival in HCC.

A narrative synthesis of literature from the publication period of 2010 to 2025 was performed on PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Surveys that quantified literature on post-CIN vaccination attitudes, risk perceptions, or behavioral factors were considered. Acceptance levels varied from 20-95% across all continents. The highest acceptance levels (≥80%) among the populations belong to the European and Oceanian groups, followed by moderate acceptance among the North Americans (60-80%), which was influenced by financial costs, misconceptions, and sociocultural stigmas. Several systemic-level features in Europe and Oceania have been shown to be consistently associated across these regions with high acceptance rates. These features include public funding of HPV vaccine delivery universally in these regions and reminder and recall systems established in their electronic health records. In these two regions, provider recommendation demonstrates particular significance because there is follow-up care after treatment of CIN. In these regions, mass awareness about HPV conducted in conjunction with their cervical screening programs increases baseline knowledge and favorability towards HPV vaccination. The lowest levels (20-70%) of awareness of HPV diseases and vaccination programs among Asians and Africans can be attributed to obstacles that include misconceptions about fertility concerns. In the case of Asia, there are various socially ingrained stigma factors that contribute to the poor awareness and acceptance levels. These factors include the possibility of being perceived as promiscuous, embarrassment linked to STI conditions, as well as the possibility of rejection from partners and in-laws. In particular regions, there might be stigmas attached to HPV vaccination that cause tension within married women who perceive the vaccine as an indicator of being unfaithful. Also, distrust from the general community has been driven by past incidents, including the halting of proactive HPV vaccine recommendations in Japan in 2013. Moreover, there are numerous myths concerning infertility and menstruation linked to poor vaccine acceptance. The key determinant of acceptance levels was physician endorsement, lack of knowledge of the association of HPV-CIN, or the belief that there is no need for vaccination after treatment. The acceptance of HPV vaccination among women following CIN is influenced by educational level, the structure of the healthcare system, and sociocultural factors. Incorporating evidence-based cervical vaccination counseling into follow-up care after biopsy could help increase its acceptance and prevent recurrent high-grade lesions.

Botulinum neurotoxin serotype A (BoNT/A), a Class A bioterrorism agent, poses significant poisoning risks, with diagnosis challenges and no specific antidotes, making vaccination the most effective prevention. However, traditional needle-based vaccines are painful, thermally unstable, require trained professionals for administration, and carry infection risks, leading to low patient compliance. To overcome these limitations, we introduce a self-applicable, thermostable, heterogeneous microneedle (MN) patch for delivering a recombinant protein vaccine based on the C-terminal heavy chain of BoNT/A to prevent botulism. By incorporating materials with varying hydrophilicity, the MN patch enhances drug-layer contact with skin, improving vaccine delivery efficiency. Fabricated via heat- and pressure-assisted micromolding, the polycaprolactone MNs demonstrate sufficient mechanical strength for effective skin penetration. In vivo studies in a mouse model show that MN patches loaded with the recombinant C-terminal heavy chain of BoNT/A elicit strong IgG antibody responses and provide protective efficacy comparable to those of intramuscular injections, with all immunized mice surviving lethal BoNT/A challenges. The IgG responses of MN patches did not decrease after storage for 6 mol (25 °C, 60% relative humidity), indicating good stability. These findings suggest that thermostable MN patches offer a noninvasive, effective, patient-friendly alternative to traditional vaccines, with potential applications in bioterrorism prevention.

Chitosan-based DNA nanoparticles have emerged as a promising next-generation platform for veterinary vaccines, addressing several limitations of conventional attenuated, inactivated, and recombinant formulations. Chitosan is a biodegradable, biocompatible, and low toxicity polymer with mucoadhesive properties that enhance cellular uptake and protect nucleic acids from enzymatic degradation. These characteristics make it an attractive candidate for delivering plasmid DNA encoding viral antigens across diverse animal species. Recent advances demonstrate that chitosan–DNA nanoparticles can induce robust humoral and cellular immune responses, stimulate mucosal immunity, and achieve high levels of protection in terrestrial livestock, poultry, fish, and crustaceans. A wide range of viral pathogens has been targeted using this approach, including Foot-and-Mouth disease virus, Newcastle disease virus, infectious bronchitis virus, spring viremia of carp virus, white spot syndrome virus, and infectious pancreatic necrosis virus. Depending on the species and formulation strategy, nanoparticles have been successfully administered intranasally, intramuscularly, intraperitoneally, or orally, highlighting their versatility for mass vaccination in both terrestrial and aquatic systems. Reported protection rates range from 60% to 100% in mammalian and avian models, while oral nanoparticle vaccines in shrimp and fish have demonstrated sustained immune activation and survival benefits. The ability to incorporate genetic adjuvants, such as cytosine-phosphate-guanine motifs, cytokines, or complement fragments, further enhances the immunogenicity of these platforms. Despite these promising results, several challenges remain. Most studies use small laboratory animals or controlled experimental settings, and data from large-scale field trials in cattle, pigs, and equines remain scarce. The stability of nanoparticle formulations during long-term storage, the scalability of manufacturing processes, and the standardization of dosing regimens require further investigation. Overall, chitosan–DNA nanoparticles represent a safe, flexible, and rapidly adaptable vaccine carrier system with significant potential to transform veterinary immunization. Their capacity to elicit mucosal and systemic immunity, enable needle-free delivery, and support DIVA-compatible vaccine design positions them as a valuable tool for controlling emerging and re-emerging viral diseases in the context of One Health. Keywords: chitosan nanoparticles, genetic immunization, mucosal vaccination, nanocarriers, nanotechnology in animals, One Health, plasmid DNA, vaccine delivery systems, veterinary DNA vaccines, viral diseases.

The development of effective and long-lasting malaria vaccines remains a key goal. Late-arresting genetically attenuated sporozoite (LA-GAP SPZ) vaccines, such as Pf∆mei2 (GA2), have shown strong protective potential. While GA2 delivered via mosquito bites has demonstrated up to 90% protection in humans, practical vaccine deployment will require alternative administration routes. Intravenous (IV) delivery of whole SPZ vaccines has been highly effective, but intradermal (ID) administration though easier, offers significantly reduced protection, with unclear underlying mechanisms. In this study, we used a Plasmodiumberghei GA2 SPZ rodent model to compare immune responses following ID and IV immunization across multiple organs. ID immunization resulted in lower frequencies of CD8⁺ tissue-resident memory T cells (Trm) in the spleen (1.3%, p = 0.3), lungs (8.1%, p = 0.005) and liver (2.5%, p = 0.07), along with reduced activation markers (Granzyme A, Ki67, and KLRG1). In the liver, Granzyme B (p = < 0.0001) and perforin (p = < 0.0001) were significantly decreased after ID immunization, indicating diminished cytotoxic potential. Importantly, ID immunization induced a regulatory myeloid phenotype in the skin and skin-draining lymph nodes, marked by low CD86 and high PD-L1 expression, potentially impairing T cell priming. A similar regulatory profile in the liver suggests systemic immunosuppression. These findings highlight key immunological differences between ID and IV GA2 SPZ delivery and suggest that optimizing ID administration, such as adjusting injection volume to enhance sporozoite migration, may improve efficacy. Understanding how myeloid regulation and T-cell activation vary across organs is essential for enhancing malaria vaccine strategies.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-025-27588-4.