Use Of Various Experimental Techniques Research Articles

Effect of a temperature threshold on the electrorheological performance of ionic liquid crystal polyanilines

A series of ionic liquid crystal polyanilines (ILCPs) electrorheological (ER) compounds were synthesized by use of polyaniline, naphthalene disulfonic acid and pyridinyl-containing mesogen. The chemical structure, thermal property, morphology, liquid-crystalline behavior, dielectric property and ER effect of the ILCPs-based ER fluids were characterized by use of various experimental techniques. The synthesized ILCPs displayed nematic liquid-crystalline phase, and the different mesogens played a determinant role in the liquid crystal behavior. The experimental results about dielectric property of the ILCPs suggested that both dielectric constant and dielectric loss increase with raising the temperature, showing a sudden change around glass-transition temperature. The ILCPs-based ER fluids contained an integrated character of liquid crystal, poly(ionic liquid) and polyaniline-base ER suspensions. These characteristics had strong dependence on operating temperature, and a temperature threshold was observed on the ER performance. The shear stress of the ER fluids increased abnormally near glass-transition temperature, which was due to the synergetic effect between the mesogenic orientation and the stretched polyaniline droplets induced by the electric field.

Production of relativistic electrons, MeV deuterons and protons by sub-nanosecond terawatt laser

By the use of various experimental techniques, it is shown that the relativistic electrons, MeV protons, and deuterons are emitted from a 500-μm thick (CD2)n target exposed to Iλ2 ≈ 5 × 1016 W cm–2 μm2, which is delivered by the iodine photodissociation laser Prague Asterix Laser System. A parameter reflecting the laser-power efficiency of the proton acceleration is used for comparison of the observed maximum proton energy with data from other experiments. The number of protons and deuterons constituting the backward and forward jets is estimated. Values of maximum proton energies and electron temperatures indicate that the laser intensity should reach a relativistic level through the laser beam self-focusing. The occurrence of electron bunches in front of the irradiated target surface was identified by time resolved femtosecond interferometry. Energy distribution functions of electrons emitted in the both backward and forward directions are analysed and compared.

Chemical modification of Fe powders under surfactant-assisted ball milling in polydiene solutions

Composite materials are of great importance for both science and technology. In this work, the high-energy ball milling of carbonyl iron in the presence of polydienes of various structures (cis-polybutadiene, cis- and trans-polyisoprene) and surfactants (perfluorononanoic and stearic acid) is used to chemically modify the bulk and surface of iron particles. A comprehensive study of the particles was performed with the use of various experimental techniques. Mechanochemically activated iron surface favors the processes of decomposition and transformation of organic molecules that make up the milling medium, resulting in the accumulation of carbides in the particles bulk and the formation of modified organic layer on the surface. The composition and thickness of the modified layer as well as the arrangement of organic molecules in it was shown to be sensitive to variations in the chemical structure of the initial diene polymer and the type of surfactant added. The as-grown layers inhibit corrosive destruction of the resulting particles. Platelet-shaped particles prepared by surfactant-assisted ball milling can be used as fillers for magnetodielectric composites with high permittivity and permeability values.

Polymer Networks Based on Polyaniline and Sulfonic Acid-Containing Liquid-Crystalline Polymers

Sulfonic acid-containing Liquid-crystalline polymers (LCPs) were synthesized using potassium 2,5-dihydroxybenzenesulfonate, biphenyl-4,4'-diol, and decanedioyl dichloride in an esterification reaction. Polyaniline (PAN) was doped by the synthesized LCPs to obtain a series of polymer networks. Some electrorheological (ER) fluids were prepared using the synthesized polymer networks and silicone oil. The chemical structure, liquid-crystalline behavior and ER effect were characterized by use of various experimental techniques. The synthesized sulfonic acid-containing LCPs and polymer networks showed nematic mesophase. The polymer networks show higher glass transition temperatures than the corresponding LCPs. The ER effect of the polymer networks suspensions was greater than PAN indicating that a synergistic effect should be occurred between liquid crystalline component and PAN part under electric fields.

Imidazolium-based polymerized ionic liquid crystals containing fluorinated cholesteryl mesogens

A series of polymerized ionic liquid crystals (PILCs) bearing fluorinated cholesteryl mesogens were synthesized in this work, which include polymerized imidazolium bromides (PIBs) and polymerized imidazolium hexafluorophosphates (PIHs). The PIBs were synthesized using alkyl bromine-containing polysiloxanes and 1-butyl-1H-imidazole, and the PIHs were synthesized by anion metathesis reaction using the corresponding PIBs and KPF6. The chemical structures, liquid crystalline (LC) properties, and electrorheological (ER) effect of these PILCs were characterized by use of various experimental techniques. All the PILCs showed smectic A mesophase on heating and cooling cycles. The smectic layer structure of these PILCs are originated from the rigid fluorinated cholesteryl mesogens and the flexible moieties in the LC phase, but the ion pairs (imidazolium cations–PF6−, Im+–PF6−; or imidazolium cations–Br−, Im+–Br−) can disperse in the polysiloxane matrix and expand the d-spacing in the smectic layers. The PIHs show lower Tg and Ti than the corresponding precursor PIBs, which is due to the larger ion volume of Im+–PF6− for PIHs than that of Im+–Br− for PIBs. A series of 40 V% ER fluids were prepared by mixing the PILCs with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), and the ER behaviors were studied. All the PILC/PDMS fluids showed ER effect, and the PIH/PDMS fluids show a little greater ER effect than the PIB/PDMS fluids. The PILC droplets in the ER fluids become deformed owing to both the orientation of fluorinated cholesteryl mesogens and the suppression of ionic migration when a DC electric field was applied, resulting in the occurrence of ER effect. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Zethrenes, extended p-quinodimethanes, and periacenes with a singlet biradical ground state.

Researchers have studied polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) for more than 100 years, and most PAHs in the neutral state reported so far have a closed-shell electronic configuration in the ground state. However, recent studies have revealed that specific types of polycyclic hydrocarbons (PHs) could have a singlet biradical ground state and exhibit unique electronic, optical, and magnetic activities. With the appropriate stabilization, these new compounds could prove useful as molecular materials for organic electronics, nonlinear optics, organic spintronics, organic photovoltaics, and energy storage devices. However, before researchers can use these materials to design new devices, they need better methods to synthesize these molecules and a better understanding of the fundamental relationship between the structure and biradical character of these compounds and their physical properties. Their biradical character makes these compounds difficult to synthesize. These compounds are also challenging to physically characterize and require the use of various experimental techniques and theoretic methods to comprehensively describe their unique properties. In this Account, we will discuss the chemistry and physics of three types of PHs with a significant singlet biradical character, primarily developed in our group. These structures are zethrenes, Z-shaped quinoidal hydrocarbons; hydrocarbons that include a proaromatic extended p-quinodimethane unit; and periacenes, acenes fused in a peri-arrangement. We used a variety of synthetic methods to prepare these compounds and stabilized them using both thermodynamic and kinetic approaches. We probed their ground-state structures by electronic absorption, NMR, ESR, SQUID, Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray crystallography and also performed density functional theory calculations. We investigated the physical properties of these PHs using various experimental methods such as one-photon absorption, two-photon absorption, transient absorption spectroscopy, electrochemistry, and spectroelectrochemistry. These systematic studies revealed that aromaticity played a very important role in determining their singlet biradical character, which is critically related to both their physical properties and their chemical reactivity. In particular, we found that Clar's aromatic sextet rule, which is useful for the closed-shell PAHs, can also predict the relative biradical character of benzenoid PH-based singlet biradicaloids. Other factors, such as structural flexibility of the biradical and quinoid resonance forms and the participation of the substitution in the π-conjugation, also influence the biradical character. These molecular materials demonstrate a number of unique properties such as near-infrared absorption, redox amphotericity, large two-photon absorption cross section, short excited state lifetime, stimuli-responsive magnetic activity, and singlet fission, which suggests promise for future applications.

Discotic liquid crystal derived from zinc tetraaminophthalocyanine and perfluorooctanoic acid

A novel kind of metallo-phthalocyanine derivative, zinc 2,9,16,23-tetraaminophthalocyanine perfluorooctanoate (Zn-APc-pFOA), was synthesized from zinc tetraaminophthalocyanine and perfluorooctanoic acid. The chemical structure, liquid crystalline behavior, and electrorheological properties were characterized by the use of various experimental techniques, methods, and instruments, including FT-IR and UV–vis spectroscopy, 1H-NMR, x-ray diffraction, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, polarized optical microscopy, the four-point method, a relative permittivity test instrument, and a rotating viscometer. Zn-APc-pFOA shows a discotic hexagonal columnar mesophase over a wide temperature range. The dielectric constant and conductivity of Zn-APc-pFOA are 11.4 and 6.34 × 10−3 S cm−1, respectively. The 20 V% silicone oil–Zn-APc-pFOA fluid shows an electrorheological (ER) effect. Zn-APc-pFOA is a semiconductor with a high dielectric constant, causing a mismatch of conductivity and dielectric constant between the Zn-APc-pFOA and silicone oil. Furthermore, some synergistic effect could occur between the semiconducting property and the molecular orientation of the discotic liquid crystals in Zn-APc-pFOA suspensions, resulting in a high ER effect.

Chiral Liquid-Crystalline Elastomers Bearing Side-Chain Fluorinated Groups and Chiral Crosslinking Units

Chiral fluorinated side-chain liquid-crystalline elastomers (LCEs)IP-IVPwere graft copolymerized by hydrosilylation reaction. The chemical structure, liquid-crystalline behavior and polarization property were characterized by use of various experimental techniques. The effective crosslink density of the chiral LCEs was studied by swelling experiments. All the samplesIP-IVPdisplayed chiral smectic C mesophase (SC*) on heating and cooling cycles. With increasing chiral crosslinking units in the elastomer systems, the glass transition temperature and chiral smectic C mesophase-isotropic phase transition temperature of fluorinated elastomers increased slightly, indicating that the temperature range of SC*mesophase became narrow with increase of chiral crosslinking agents for all the chiral fluorinated elastomers. All the samplesIP-IVPshowed 0.12-0.16 μC/cm2of spontaneous polarization.

Synthesis and characterization of fluorinated liquid-crystalline elastomers containing chiral liquid-crystalline crosslinking units

Fluorinated chiral liquid-crystalline elastomers (LCEs) were graft copolymerized by a one-step hydrosilylation reaction with polymethylhydrogenosiloxane, a fluorinated LC monomer 4-(2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,8-pentadecafluorooctanoyloxy)phenyl 4-(undec-10-enoyloxy)benzoate (PPUB) and a chiral crosslinking LC monomer (3R,3aR,6S,6aR)-6-(undec-10-enoyloxy)hexahydrofuro[3,2-b]furan-3-yl 4′-(4-(allyloxy)benzoyloxy)biphenyl-4-carboxylate (UHAB). The chemical structure, liquid-crystalline behavior and polarization property were characterized by use of various experimental techniques. The effective crosslink density of the LCEs was characterized by swelling experiments. The thermal analysis results showed that the temperatures at which 5% weight loss occurred were greater than 250°C for all the LCEs, and the residue weight nearby 600°C increase with increasing chiral crosslinking components in the polymer systems. All the samples showed chiral smectic C mesophase when they were heated. The glass transition temperature and mesophase-isotropic phase transition temperature of fluorinated elastomers increased slightly with increase of chiral crosslinking mesogens in the polymer systems, but the enthalpy changes of mesophase-isotropic phase transition decreased slightly. In XRD curves, all the samples exhibited strong sharp reflections at small angles suggesting smectic layered packing arrangement. These fluorinated chiral LCEs showed 0.1–0.2μC/cm2 of spontaneous polarization with increasing chiral crosslinking component.

Synthesis, characterization and electrorheological effect of sulfosalt‐type liquid‐crystalline ionomers containing polyaniline units

ABSTRACTA series of main‐chain liquid‐crystalline polymers (LCPs) with pendant sulfonic acid groups have been synthesized by use of biphenyl‐4,4′‐diol, 6,7‐dihydroxynaphthalene‐2‐sulfonic acid, and bis(4‐(chlorocarbonyl)phenyl) decanedioate in a one‐step esterification reaction. Emeraldine base form of polyaniline (PAN) is doped by the synthesized sulfonic acid‐containing LCPs to obtain PAN–LCP ionomers. A series of electrorheological (ER) fluids are prepared using the synthesized PAN–LCP ionomers and silicone oil. The chemical structure, liquid‐crystalline behavior, dielectric property of LCPs, and PAN–LCP ionomers, and ER effect of the ER fluids are characterized by use of various experimental techniques. The synthesized sulfonic acid‐containing LCPs and PAN–LCP ionomers display nematic mesophase. The PAN–LCP ionomers show a slight elevation of glass transition temperatures and decrease of enthalpy changes of nematic–isotropic phase transition compared with corresponding sulfonic acid‐containing LCPs. The relative permittivity of the PAN–LCP ionomers is much higher than that of the corresponding sulfonic acid‐containing LCPs. The ER effect of the PAN–LCP ionomer dispersions is better than PAN dispersions, suggesting a synergistic reaction should be occurred among liquid crystalline component, and PAN part under electric fields. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 130: 3395–3403, 2013

Preparation and Characterization of Chiral Cyclosiloxane-Based Liquid-Crystalline Elastomers Bearing Menthyl Groups

Chiral side-chain liquid-crystalline elastomers (LCEs) IP~IVP containig menthyl groups were synthesized by a one-step hydrosilylation reaction. The chemical structures and LC properties of the monomers and polymers were characterized by use of various experimental techniques. The effect of crosslinking mesogens on mesomorphic properties of the chiral LCEs was studied by swelling experiments. All the samples IP~IVP showed cholesteric mesophase when they were heated and cooled, proved by visual observation and X-ray measurements. The glass transition temperature (Tg) of elastomers increased slightly with increase of crosslinking mesogens in the polymer systems, but mesophase-isotropic phase transition temperature (Ti) decreased slightly, suggesting that the temperature range of mesophase became narrow with increase of crosslinking mesogens for all the elastomers. The maximum reflection bands shift slightly to long wavelength and become broad at the same temperature, indicating that the helical structure is partially disrupted because of both the constraint of chemical crosslinking agents and the different mesogenic units.

Effect of terminal perfluorocarbon chain containing mesogens on phase behaviors of chiral comb-like liquid crystalline polymers

A novel perfluorinated liquid crystal 4′-(2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,8-pentadecafluorooctanoyloxy)biphenyl-4-yl undec-10-enoate (PFOBU) was synthesized, which exhibited smectic C phase. Several liquid crystalline polymers (PI–PVI) were synthesized by use of poly(methylhydrogeno)siloxane, PFOBU, and cholesteryl 3-(4-allyloxy-phenyl)-acryloate. The chemical structures and liquid crystalline (LC) properties of the monomers and polymers, and some ferroelectric properties of the chiral smectic C (SC*) phase were characterized by use of various experimental techniques. The effect of perfluorocarbon chains on phase behaviors of the fluorinated LC polysiloxanes was studied as well. PI and PII showed single chiral nematic (N*) mesophase when they were heated and cooled, but PIII, PIV, PV, and PVI containing more perfluorocarbon chain units exhibited SC* phase besides N* mesophase. Introduction of perfluorocarbon chain containing mesogens to the chiral cholesteryl-containing polymer systems resulted in a SC* mesophases, indicating that the fluorophobic effect could lead to microphase segregation and modifications of smectic mesophases from the chiral nematic phase.

Synthesis and characterization of fluorine‐containing liquid crystalline polysiloxanes bearing cholesteryl cinnamate mesogens and trifluoromethyl‐substituted mesogens

AbstractSeveral novel side‐chain liquid crystalline (LC) polysiloxanes bearing cholesteryl cinnamate mesogens and trifluoromethyl‐substituted mesogens were synthesized by a one‐step hydrosilylation reaction with poly(methylhydrogeno)siloxane, a cholesteric LC monomer cholesteryl 3‐(4‐allyloxy‐phenyl)‐acryloate and a fluoro‐containing LC monomer 4‐[2‐(3‐trifluoromethyl‐phenoxy)‐acetoxy]‐phenyl 4‐allyloxy‐benzoate. The chemical structures and LC properties of the monomers and polymers were characterized by use of various experimental techniques, such as FTIR, 1H‐NMR, 13C‐NMR, TGA, DSC, POM, and XRD. The temperatures at which 5% weight loss occurred were greater than 300°C for all the polymers, and the residue weight near 600°C increased slightly with increase of the trifluoromethyl‐substituted mesogens in the fluorinated polymer systems. The samples containing mainly cholesteryl cinnamate mesogens showed chiral nematic phase when they were heated and cooled, but the samples containing more trifluoromethyl‐substituted mesogens exhibited chiral smectic A mesophase. The glass transition temperature of the series of polymers increased slightly with increase of trifluoromethyl‐substituted mesogens in the polymer systems, but mesophase–isotropic phase transition temperature did not change greatly. In XRD curves, the intensity of sharp reflections at low angle increased with increase of trifluoromethyl‐substituted mesogens in the fluorinated polymers systems, indicating that the smectic order derived from trifluoromethyl‐substituted mesogens should be strengthened. These results should be due to the fluorophobic effect between trifluoromethyl‐substituted mesogens and the polymer matrix. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2010

Effect of chiral isosorbide groups on mesomorphic properties of side-chain liquid-crystalline polysiloxanes

Chiral side-chain liquid-crystalline (LC) polysiloxanes containing isosorbide groups were graft copolymerised with poly(methylhydrogeno)siloxane, a chiral LC monomer 6-(4-methoxy-benzoyloxy)-hexahydro-furo[3,2-b]furan-3-yl 4'-(4-undec-10-enoyloxy-benzoyloxy)-biphenyl-4-yl adipate and a nematic LC monomer 4'-(4-methoxy-benzoyloxy)-biphenyl-4-yl 4-(2-undec-10-enoyloxy-ethoxy)-benzoate. The chemical structures and LC properties of the monomers and polymers were characterised by use of various experimental techniques including Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), 1H-nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), element analyses (EA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), polarised optical microscopy (POM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). All the chiral LC polymers showed LC properties with very wide mesophase temperature ranges and the chiral component in the LC polymer systems lead to the appearance of a cholesteric phase. The polymers bearing most chiral LC monomer component showed smectic phases by reason of regular structures in the polymer systems. With the increase of another nematic LC monomer in the polymers, the regular polymer structures were destroyed because of different chemical structures between the two kinds of LC monomers, leading to the disappearance of the smectic arrangement.

Cholesteric Liquid-Crystalline Thermosets Derived from Side-Chain Liquid-Crystalline Epoxy Oligomers

A series of side-chain liquid crystalline (LC) oligomers bearing glycidyl ether groups were synthesized with cholest-5-en-3-ol(3 β)-4-(2-propenyloxy) benzoate, octyl 4-(4-allyloxy-benzoyloxy)-benzoate and epoxy monomer allyl glycidyl ether. The chemical structures and LC properties of the monomers and oligomers were characterized by use of various experimental techniques. All the chiral LC oligomers showed cholesteric mesophase with very wide mesophase temperature ranges. All the synthesized LC oligomers were cured with 4,4'-diaminodiphenylmethane at the same curing conditions. The thermal behaviors, mesomorphic phase and optical properties of the thermosets were characterized. The synthesized thermosets have high thermal stability. The cholesteric phases of LC oligomers were frozen in the polymer networks. Compared with those of corresponding oligomers, the reflection located at wide angles of thermosets became more diffuse, and the peak intensity decreased in X-ray diffraction analysis. The selective light reflection maximum λmax of the thermosets at room temperature shifted slightly to short wavelengths as the LC monomer bearing cholesteryl component was increased, indicating that the helical pitch P becomes shorter due to more chiral groups in the polymer network systems. The temperature dependences of both reflection wavelength and optical rotation under the influence of the crosslinking reaction were also investigated.

Synthesis and characterization of side-chain liquid-crystalline polysiloxanes containing fluorinated units

Several new chiral side-chain LC polysiloxanes (IP–VIIP) bearing fluorinated methyl groups were synthesized with a cholesteric LC monomer and a non-LC monomer containing fluorinated units. The chemical structures and LC properties of the monomers and polymers were characterized by use of various experimental techniques. The effect of copolymer composition on mesomorphic properties of the fluorine-containing polymers was studied as well. The obtained polymers were soluble in many solvents and the specific rotations showed negative values. The temperatures at which 5% weight loss occurred (Td) were greater than 300 °C for all the polymers and the residue weight on heating to 600 °C increased slightly with increase of the monomer containing fluorinated units in the polymer systems. All the polymers displayed two-phase transitions when they were heated and cooled. The IP, IIP, and IIIP exhibited cholesteric textures when they were heated and cooled, while IVP, VP, VIP, and VIIP showed smectic fan-shaped textures. XRD curves of samples of IVP, VP, VIP, and VIIP displayed sharp and strong peaks at low angle, but no sharp peaks were shown at low angle for the samples IP, IIP, and IIIP.

Chiral side-chain liquid crystalline polysiloxanes bearing fluorinated mesogens and cholesteryl groups

A series of chiral side-chain liquid crystalline (LC) polysiloxanes bearing fluorinated mesogens were synthesized with a cholesteric LC monomer and a fluorinated nematic LC monomer. They were characterized by use of various experimental techniques, and effect of fluorinated mesogens on characteristic of LC polysiloxanes was studied as well. In photoluminescence spectra, a narrow and a broad peak occur at around 270–317 nm, originated, respectively, from fluorinated phenyl groups and the conjugated xenene structure. The specific rotation analysis of all polymers showed negative values, but absolute values were lower than those of the chiral monomers. All polymers showed smectic LC phase with very wide temperature ranges on heating and cooling cycles. Especially, only polymers bearing more fluorinated component exhibited smectic–cholesteric phase transition when they were heated. As the polymers contained more fluorinated mesogens, segregation of the fluorinated segment to the surface should occur at mesomorphic temperature. The highly ordered lamellar mesogen–siloxane matrix systems should be disturbed severely by separation of fluorinated mesogens, suggesting mesogenic orders transition from lamellar smectic to cholesteric phase.

Structural and Surface Characterization of Pure and Sulfated Iron Oxides

Iron oxide catalysts, pure and surface-doped with variable amounts of sulfate groups, have been prepared and characterized by means of electron microscopy (HR-TEM), N2-adsorption at 77 K (BET area and porosity), X-ray diffraction (XRD), adsorption microcalorimetry, and various spectroscopic techniques (UV−Vis, Raman, and FTIR). The catalysts were prepared from aqueous solutions of ammonia and iron nitrate, with production of an amorphous precipitate that transformed into α-Fe2O3 upon calcination at 773 K. The sulfation of iron oxide was carried out by adding two dosed amounts of aqueous (NH4)2SO4 to the starting hydroxide, as normally done for the preparation of other sulfated oxidic catalysts. Nominal sulfate loadings of 2 and 8 wt % were obtained, corresponding to ∼1.4 and ∼4.1 sulfate groups per nm2, respectively. The use of various experimental techniques allowed the description of the morphological and structural aspects of the systems, whereas in-situ IR spectroscopy of adsorbed probe-molecules (e.g...

Comparative study of formation and transformation of transition phases in Al–12 wt.% Mg alloy

The use of various experimental techniques as differential dilatometry, differential scanning calorimetry, optical and transmission electron microscopy, internal friction, electrical resistance and microhardness measurements, shows their importance and their complementarity in the study of the ageing process in Al–12 wt.% Mg alloy. Indeed, their sensitivity to various precipitation stages is different and can give more information to describe the evolution of the structure, the nature and the morphology of the precipitated phases particles and the transition between them, which is not, yet, well established. The obtained dilatometric curves show numerous effects which have been discussed. During ageing of a supersaturated solid solution Al–12 wt.% Mg it seems that β′ and β phases do not grow at the expense of GP zones (and/or β″) and β′, respectively.

Teaching Catalytic Antibodies to Undergraduate Students: An Organic Chemistry Lab Experiment

Only 13 years ago, few believed that antibodies could be catalytic or that any protein could be made to order to perform a catalytic task. The field has quickly matured from initial proof of concept and demonstration of fundamental enzyme-like characteristics to one in which antibodies have catalyzed an extremely broad range of organic transformations. Now that the first catalytic antibody is commercially available, it is possible to bring these novel biocatalysts into the classroom so every student can gain hands-on experience and carry out experiments on the cutting edge of scientific discovery.This lab project deals with antibody-catalyzed aldol condensations. It includes the (i) synthesis of substrate and product; (ii) HPLC characterization of the antibody-catalyzed reaction; (iii) titration of the antibody active-site; and (iv) analysis of the kinetics of the antibody-catalyzed reaction. The lab project provides training not only in biocatalysis but in a number of related aspects of chemical and biochemical research, including organic synthesis, mechanistic organic chemistry, and chemical kinetics. Students will learn the use of various experimental techniques, such as UV-vis spectroscopy and HPLC, to monitor chemical reactions and determine kinetic parameters. They will be exposed to concepts and terminology of bioorganic chemistry, such as protein structure and function, inhibition and active-site titration, and basic principles of biocatalysis.