Use Of Untreated Wastewater Research Articles

Genotoxicity Studies of Radish Grown on Industrial and Domestic Waste Water Using Alium cepa Root Tip Assay

In absence of adequate water supply local vegetable vendors in Mumbai use sewage and industrial waste water for agricultural purpose. This sewage and industrial waste water contains various organic and inorganic compounds which have direct health effects on human life. The response of Alium cepa genetic material can be used to evaluate the effect of potential genotoxic and cytoxic substances in the environment. In the present study, we have used Alium cepa root tip assay to evaluate physiological and genotoxic effects of waste water on vegetables, particularly radish grown along the areas of railway track. Samples were collected from three different sites in Mumbai region and analyzed for their heavy metal content. Similarly, effect of contaminated waste water on the external morphology of onion roots was observed using root length inhibition assay. Genotoxicity was also determined by observing the Mitotic Index (MI) and Chromosomal Aberrations (CA). Significant differences in MI and root length inhibition with increasing concentrations of different samples were observed. The diverse CA were increased significantly (p<0.05) with increase in concentration. Apart from this, bioaccumulation was also studied in soil and radish samples where concentration of heavy metals like Cd, Pb was significantly high. Consuming such radishes grown on untreated water poses health hazards to human population. Frequent and continual use of untreated waste water leads to bioaccumulation in radish as well as makes soil unfit for agricultural use.

Perception on untreated wastewater irrigation for vegetable production in Ghana

Using household-level survey data, this study investigates farmers’ perceptions on untreated wastewater use for irrigation of vegetable farms in urban and peri-urban Kumasi of Ghana. Empirical results from an ordered probit model show that there is some relationship between personal characteristics of farmers such as age, education and gender, and perceptions of farmers on health-related risks of untreated wastewater use for irrigation. Policy efforts should be geared toward updating the knowledge, skills and attitudes of producers through frequent training and workshops so that wastewater irrigation farmers in Ghana would better appreciate health-related risks of waster irrigation and how to adopt risk mitigating strategies. Further research for a more in-depth analysis on those relationships in the short-term with immediate emphasis on improving adoption of safer irrigation technologies among wastewater irrigation farmers is recommended.

Fighting for the right to use wastewater: what drives the use of untreated wastewater in a peri-urban village of Faisalabad, Pakistan?

This case study from Chakera village, Faisalabad City, Pakistan describes the transition from canal-water irrigation to wastewater irrigation over a period of several decades. It shows that while the initial motivation for wastewater use was water scarcity and a lack of choice, farmers soon realized there were benefits associated with this alternative water supply. In the subsequent decades, they made great efforts and overcame organizational, infrastructural and legal obstacles to establish wastewater irrigation as the only irrigation on most of the village's agricultural area.

Diversity of Bacteria Contaminants in Tissues of Fish Cultured in Organic Waste-Fertilized Ponds: Health Implications~!2009-10-15~!2010-02-16~!2010-06-17~!

Bacterial populations contaminating various tissues of fish cultured in fish ponds fertilized with different or- ganic wastes have been studied. Twenty-five genera of bacteria were identified as associated with the fish tissues. The identified bacteria included one genus of spiral and curved bacteria, one genus of Gram-negative aerobic rod, sixteen gen- era of Gram-negative facultative anaerobic rods, one Gram-negative anaerobic bacterium, three Gram-positive cocci, two endospore-forming rods, and one Actinomycete. The bacterial contaminants were isolated from all tissues of the cultured fish. Higher bacterial contamination was associated with the gills, gut and skin than the blood and muscle. Although Pseudomonas sp. was most abundant species in the organic waste fertilized ponds and was present in considerable quanti- ties in the five fish tissues, Salmonella sp. was the most important contaminant of the gills, muscle and skin. The presence of high diversity of bacteria in the fish tissues presents health hazards to both consumers and fish farm workers. Handling and cleaning of the fish can result in contamination of hands of farm workers and through them to their family members and others. The digestive tract and intraperitoneal fluid of fish in this study showed high concentrations of pathogens, such as Salmonella in fish cultured in the organic waste fertilized ponds, but lower concentrations in fish cultured in non- fertilized pond. Public health must therefore be of prime concern when dealing with fish farming and its products in coun- tries, such as Ghana, with less restriction on release of waste into water bodies, and the use of untreated wastewater for aquaculture.

Urban growth, wastewater production and use in irrigated agriculture: a comparative study of Accra, Addis Ababa and Hyderabad

The relationships between urban development, water resources management and wastewater use for irrigation have been studied in the cities of Accra in Ghana, Addis Ababa in Ethiopia and Hyderabad in India. Large volumes of water are extracted from water sources often increasingly far away from the city, while investments in wastewater management are often lagging behind. The resulting environmental degradation within and downstream of cities has multiple consequences for public health, in particular through the use of untreated wastewater in irrigated agriculture. Despite significant efforts to increase wastewater treatment, options for safeguarding public health via conventional wastewater treatment alone remain limited to smaller inner-urban watersheds. The new WHO guidelines for wastewater irrigation recognize this situation and emphasize the potential of post- or non-treatment options. Controlling potential health risks will allow urban water managers in all three cities to build on the benefits from the already existing (but largely informal) wastewater reuse, those being the contribution to food security and reduction of fresh water demands.

Implementation of the WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater in Pakistan: balancing risks and benefits

The use of wastewater in agriculture is receiving renewed attention as a result of increasing global water scarcity. Wastewater use potentially poses a risk to public health if not properly managed. In Pakistan the use of wastewater in agriculture is already common, though in most cases its use is unregulated and wastewater untreated. In a four year study in Faisalabad, Pakistan, the risks and benefits of the use of untreated wastewater in agriculture were assessed. The study found an increased risk of intestinal disease in wastewater farmers but also found major financial and nutritional benefits for farmers and consumers in the city of Faisalabad. This paper presents a policy approach for the implementation of the WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater in agriculture in Pakistan.

The Beat

Vol. 116, No. 10 EnvironewsOpen AccessThe Beat Erin E. Dooley Erin E. Dooley Search for more papers by this author Published:1 October 2008https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.116-a424bAboutSectionsPDF ToolsDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmail Toy Safety Bill SignedIn 2007, millions of toys were pulled from U.S. shelves due to high levels of lead. Legislation passed 14 August 2008 sharply limits the lead allowed in children’s products to 100 ppm, bans the use of phthalates (3 types will be permanently banned, while 3 others are suspended pending further study), and significantly increases funding and staffing for the Consumer Product Safety Commission. The law also mandates testing and safety certifications for products marketed for children ages 12 and under and requires foreign manufacturers to comply with U.S. toy safety standards.Arctic SplitFragments of the Markham Ice Shelf (left) after splitting off Ellesmere Island (right)Researchers announced in September 2008 that Canada’s Markham Ice Shelf and two other large tongues of ice had split off Ellesmere Island into the Arctic Ocean, a rate of calving the researchers say highlights the rapidity of climate-related changes occurring in the Arctic. This year, the area of floating Arctic sea ice was at its second lowest point since measurements began 30 years ago. Ice cover reflects radiation from the sun back into space, creating a cooling effect on the Earth; as the area of ice diminishes, dark seawater and ice-free land absorb radiation and could possibly accelerate warming of the Earth. Loss of ice shelves also affects unique local ecosystems that depend on such ice.Wastewater for Urban Gardens?Amid rising scarcity of food and clean water alike, urban farms are an important source of fresh produce in developing countries. But the untreated wastewater used to irrigate many of these farm plots can contain heavy metals and raw sewage, putting the health of potentially hundreds of millions of people at risk. A survey of 53 cities in developing countries released in August 2008 by the International Water Management Institute finds the use of untreated wastewater on urban gardens is “widespread and practically inevitable” due to water scarcity, transport, and monitoring issues. In the study area alone, more than 1 million urban farmers provide produce for 4.5 million people.Body Shops Go GreenAutomobile body shop owners investing in new water-based paint systems and dust removal technologies are seeing such benefits as lower operating costs, improved air quality, and better worker health. The new paints, which consume fewer solvents and energy as well as speed up the painting process, will be mandatory in California at the end of 2008. In January 2008, the U.S. EPA announced new rules requiring body shops to minimize emissions of paint-stripping chemicals and improve ventilation of workspaces and application equipment, requirements that are expected to reduce pollutant emissions by almost 7,000 tons annually.Going clean could pay off for body shopsConcrete Data on Hg EmissionsCement manufacturing often uses fuels and raw materials with high mercury content, which is vaporized and emitted through smokestacks. In July 2008, the advocacy groups Earthjustice and the Environmental Integrity Project released a report examining new EPA data that show unregulated mercury emissions from cement kilns to be nearly twice as high as the agency estimated in 2006—almost 23,000 pounds of mercury released annually from more than 150 plants. In some cases cement plants are among the worst mercury polluters in states, surpassing coal-fired power plants. The report calls on the EPA to enact a mercury standard for kilns.High-Flying Energy SourceResearch teams around the world are working to tap the energy potential of high-altitude winds, a more abundant and reliable energy source than the ground-level winds upon which conventional turbines rely. In an August 2008 proof of concept experiment at the Delft University of Technology, researchers flying a 10-m2 kite successfully generated enough electricity to power 10 homes; they believe a full-scale version of the “Laddermill” rig could power some 100,000 homes. Northwestern European countries are thought to be best positioned geographically to take advantage of the high-speed jet stream.Artist’s rendering of the LaddermillFiguresReferencesRelatedDetails Vol. 116, No. 10 October 2008Metrics About Article Metrics Publication History Originally published1 October 2008Published in print1 October 2008 Financial disclosures License information EHP is an open-access journal published with support from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health. All content is public domain unless otherwise noted. Note to readers with disabilities EHP strives to ensure that all journal content is accessible to all readers. However, some figures and Supplemental Material published in EHP articles may not conform to 508 standards due to the complexity of the information being presented. If you need assistance accessing journal content, please contact [email protected]. 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Waste stabilization pond performance in Pakistan and its implications for wastewater use in agriculture

Faisalabad is one of the few cities in Pakistan that has a waste stabilization pond (WSP) system. Local farmers complained about the high salinity and low nutrient value of the final effluent from the WSP and preferred the use of untreated wastewater. A one-year study showed a strong increase in salinity from untreated wastewater to final effluent with a clear decline in nitrogen concentration, thereby confirming farmer perceptions. The performance of the WSP was poor and did not comply with World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) guidelines for irrigation water. The poor performance of the WSP could be attributed to a combination of factors: poor design, the extreme climatic conditions and the large quantities of untreated wastewater which were used in agriculture. In countries such as Pakistan where the use of untreated wastewater has a long history, farmer perceptions should play a pivotal role in the selection of suitable wastewater treatment systems.

Diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli and other causes of childhood diarrhoea: a case–control study in children living in a wastewater-use area in Hanoi, Vietnam

A case-control study was conducted to identify the aetiology of diarrhoeal diseases in pre-school children in a suburban area of Hanoi where the use of untreated wastewater in agriculture and aquaculture is a common practice. Stool specimens and clinical information were collected from 111 pairs of children with diarrhoea and healthy controls. A total of 73 cases (66 %) and 41 controls (36 %) had an enteric pathogen. The pathogens most often associated with diarrhoea were rotavirus (17 % of cases) and Entamoeba histolytica (15 %), followed by Shigella (5 %). Diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) was found in 23 % of both patients and controls. Characterization of DEC by serotyping, antimicrobial susceptibility test and PFGE showed that DEC represented by different pathotypes belonged to various serotypes. Except for three enterotoxigenic E. coli strains, typing by PFGE revealed no correlation between pathotype and serotype of DEC strains. This suggests a high prevalence of a variety of DEC subtypes in this area. For this particular region, vaccine development strategies targeting rotavirus and Shigella are likely to be of public health benefit, whereas the role of DEC and preventive measures need to be further elaborated.

Méningo-encéphalite à toxocara canis : à propos d'un cas

Seroprevalence studies on human toxocariasis help to assess the burden and the morbidity associated with this zoonosis. This review searched the seroprevalence studies and case reports in six North African countries: Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Sudan and Tunisia, since 1990. The search also included studies on the environmental factors related to the risk of transmission. Most of the published epidemiological studies were done in Egypt. Cross-sectional and case-control studies in Egypt demonstrated that toxocariasis is a significant zoonosis that could be associated with conditions like bronchial asthma allergies and certain neuropsychiatric disorders. The population at risk of this infection includes all ages, both genders, in contact with dogs, resident in rural areas with poor housing conditions. The publications from Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria are limited to case reports and retrospective analyses of cases, but the disease is probably under-diagnosed in these three countries. There are no published reports on human toxocariasis in Libya and Sudan during the period covered by the review. Animal studies confirm high infection rates of dogs with Toxocara canis in North Africa. There is also evidence of wide-spread contamination of soil and water with Toxocara spp. eggs. Moreover, the use of untreated wastewater for irrigation in parts of North Africa could be a source of contamination of agricultural products with eggs of Toxocara spp. Population-based studies on human toxocariasis are recommended, using standardized diagnostic tests. These surveys should also assess risk factors to guide preventive measures.

High risk of hookworm infection among wastewater farmers in Pakistan

The health risks of wastewater use in agriculture were investigated in the city of Faisalabad, Pakistan, by means of a cross-sectional study. The study showed an increased risk of intestinal nematode infection and hookworm infection, in particular, in wastewater farmers (OR = 31.4, 95% CI 4.1-243) and their children (OR = 5.7, 95% CI 2.1-16) when compared with farming households using regular (non-wastewater) irrigation water. Textile labourers living in the same village as the wastewater farmers showed a lower risk of hookworm infection than wastewater farmers but an increased risk compared with farming households using regular irrigation water. Many urban and peri-urban farmers make a living by using untreated wastewater in the production of fresh produce for the urban market. Banning the use of untreated wastewater would deprive these farmers of their livelihood and affect food supply for the urban population. If treatment of wastewater is not a feasible option, the promotion of footwear and improved hygiene, the construction of toilets, in combination with regular anthelminthic treatment, would be suitable alternatives to safeguard the health of wastewater farmers and their children.

Wastewater Re-Use and Groundwater Quality edited by Joop Steenvoorden &amp; Theodore Endreny . 2004, IAHS Publication no 285, £30, 112 pp. ISBN 1-901502-52-X

The global need for a good supply of high quality drinking water is not only increasing with population but with a rise in income. The availability of such a supply of potable water is already uncertain over a large percentage of the world but the uncertainty is exacerbated by factors such as global warming. The reuse of wastewater for irrigation is one solution to meet this need – where the world population is expected to increase by 2 billion in 20 years – but there are obvious concerns over health issues with the use of untreated wastewater. The book …

Health effects of wastewater reuse for agriculture in the suburbs of Asmara city, Eritrea.

The health impact of utilization of raw domestic sewage for vegetable cultivation in the suburbs of Asmara, Eritrea, was assessed. Results showed heavy contamination of vegetables by fecal coliforms and Giardia cysts as well as other pathogenic bacteria such as Shigella and Salmonella. Stool samples from 75 occupationally exposed farmers revealed that 45% of them were harboring Giardia cysts. Dietary intake of raw greens (lettuce, cabbage) grown on the raw sewage appears to cause giardiasis, amebiasis, and diarrhea in the farming community as well as in the surrounding area. Comparison of hospital data from the affected area with data from other areas of Eritrea indicated that agriculture use of untreated wastewater was the major cause of the increase in giardiasis and other gastrointestinal diseases.

A nationwide assessment of wastewater use in Pakistan: an obscure activity or a vitally important one?

A nationwide assessment in Pakistan showed that the direct use of untreated wastewater for agriculture, particularly vegetable production, was common in most cities. The main reasons for this use were the absence of alternative water sources, the reliability of the wastewater supply, the nutrient value and the proximity to urban markets. It was estimated that 26% of the total domestic vegetable production of Pakistan was cultivated with wastewater. The importance of the wastewater was re.ected in high water and land fees. Policy makers have to take the importance for local livelihoods and food security into account when making decisions regarding direct wastewater use.

Health effect of human wastes use in agriculture in El Azzouzia (the wastewater spreading area of Marrakesh city, Morocco)

The use of wastewater and excreta in agriculture constitutes an important source of spread Salmonella strains and protozoan infections into the environment. This practice has been used in El Azzouzia (the wastewater-spreading area of Marrakesh city, Morocco) for several years. The available circumstantial evidence gained from epidemiological and microbiological investigations suggests that the use of untreated wastewater causes an excess of protozoan infections among children living in El Azzouzia (72%) compared with those from a control area (45%). The pathogenic protozoan infections observed were giardiasis (39%) and amoebiasis (28%). For Salmonella infection, 21.34% of the exposed children were infected, while this rate did not exceed 1.14% in the control group. The serogroups B and C were the most commonly isolated. The sewage farming children are therefore more exposed to detectable risk from pathogenic micro-organisms than the control children.

Predictors of blood lead levels in agricultural villages practicing wastewater irrigation in Central Mexico.

To investigate whether the agricultural use of untreated wastewater (i.e. crop irrigation) was associated with elevated blood lead levels in a farming population in the Mezquital Valley and which risk factors, other than exposure to untreated wastewater, were associated with elevated blood lead levels, lead levels were measured in venous blood obtained from 735 individuals. Blood samples were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Food habits and dietary intake were gathered by interview, using a semi-quantitative food-frequency questionnaire. The average blood lead level was 7.8 microg/dL (SD 4.66 microg/dL; range 1.2-36.7 microg/dL). 23% of the study population had blood lead levels exceeding 10 microg/dL. The use of lead-glazed ceramics (LGC) was significantly associated with elevated lead levels (p = < 0.001). Other significant variables included age, gender (males), and non-farming-related occupations (e.g., technicians, factory workers). p = 0.005, 0.08, and 0.001, respectively. When the analysis was stratified by the use of LGC for food preparation, an inverse relationship between higher daily calcium intake and blood lead level was detected (beta = - 0.040, p = < 0.05). Thus, blood lead levels were positively associated with the use of LGC. Calcium intake showed a protective effect, maybe by decreasing absorption of lead in the gastrointestinal tract. No association between occupational exposure to untreated wastewater or crop consumption and blood lead levels was detected. Further environmental and health surveillance is recommended.

Salmonella infection in children from the wastewater-spreading zone of Marrakesh city (Morocco).

The available circumstantial evidence gained from epidemiological and microbiological investigations suggests that the use of untreated wastewater causes an excess of Salmonella infection among children living in El Azzouzia (the wastewater-spreading area of Marrakesh city, Morocco) compared with those from a control area that does not practice sewage irrigation (Sidi Moussa). The prevalence in the exposed group (32.56%) was significantly (P < 0. 001) higher than for the control group (1.14%). Serogroups B and C were the most commonly isolated. Boys were at greater risk (37.61%) of contracting Salmonella infection than girls (26.66%). Age-specified rates showed that children of less than 10 years old were infected at a higher rate than older children in the area (exposed group), with 40.32% and 19.72% rates of infection, respectively. Crop irrigation with untreated wastewater caused a significantly higher rate of infection with Salmonella in the children of agricultural workers (39.33%) than in the children of non-agriculturists (24.58%).

Dilution effects on the quality of untreated wastewater used for irrigation along the USA-Mexico border

The Juarez Valley, located along the USA-Mexico border, currently relies on untreated municipal and industrial wastewater from nearby Ciudad Juarez (est. pop. 1.6 million) which has been diluted with water diverted from the Rio Bravo (Rio Grande), and groundwater from underlying aquifers, to irrigate 18000 hectares of crops. The results indicate that dilution does very little to reduce the risks associated with the use of untreated wastewater for irrigation as faecal coliforms levels remained high (> 10 7 cfu/100 ml). Concentrations of heavy metals were low in the raw wastewater and in the mixed waters. However, the practice of diluting raw wastewater seriously degrades significant volumes of high quality waters from the Rio Bravo and from the underlying aquifer, and thus is not an optimal use of the limited high-quality water available to this semi-arid region.