Use Of Rare Earth Metals Research Articles

Use of Rare Earth Metals in Renewable Energy: Opportunities and Risks

The results of research on the use of rare earth metals for the development of a low-carbon economy are presented. Directions for the use of rare earth metals for the development of solar and wind energy are shown. Characteristics are given and information is given on the volumes of extraction of rare earth metals in the context of the main countries. The opportunities associated with the use of rare earth metals for the development of renewable energy in the context of low-carbon development are identified, as well as the environmental and social risks associated with the extraction and transportation of ore to processing plants. Using the example of the development of the Tomtor rare earth metal deposit in the Arctic zone of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).

Properties of Rare-Earth Element in Magnetic Material and Its Processing

Rare-earth metal is one of the critical elements because of its small amount with a lot of demand for this metal in a variety of the latest technologies, which are currently developed fast and intensively. The use of rare-earth metals can contribute to the development of innovations in the production of new materials in various fields, because these metals have strong, hard and heat-resistant properties. Rare-earth metals are found in complex compounds that makes it difficult to separate from ore. Obtaining of the rare-earth metals is realized by recycling the product from a secondary source of magnets containing rare-earth metals, such as NdFeB and SmCo magnets. Hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical processes can carry out the process of recovering of the rare-earth metals from secondary materials. There is a new research using bacteria as a rare-earth metal extractor to minimize environmental impact. Oxalic acid and other organic acids have potential in the recovery of rare-earth metals. As alternative, the rare-earth-free materials as candidates for permanent magnets are also mentioned.

Rebound Effects in the Use of Rare Earth Metals in ICT

Rebound Effects in the Use of Rare Earth Metals in ICT

The Effect of Rare Earth Metals Alloying on the Internal Quality of Industrially Produced Heavy Steel Forgings.

The paper presented the findings obtained by industrial research and experimental development on the use of rare earth metals (REMs) in the production of heavy steel ingots and their impact on the internal quality of the 42CrMo4 grade steel forging. REMs alloying was carried out after vacuuming the steel. A relatively large melting loss of cerium (about 50%) and its further decrease in casting due to reoxidation were observed. Refinement of structure and better mechanical properties of forged bar containing about 0.02 wt.% of Ce compared to that of the standard production were not achieved. The wind power shaft with content of about 0.06 wt.% of Ce showed high amount of REM inclusions, which were locally chained, and in some cases, initiated cracks. Four stoichiometrically different types of REM inclusions were detected in forgings, namely (La-Ce)2O2S + (La-Ce)O2 + SiO2 (minority); oxygen, phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony bound to lanthanum and cerium probably bonded with iron oxides La + Ce, MgO, Al2O3 a SiO2; (La-Ce)2O2S, FeO, SiO2, and CaO or CaS.

The Experimental Study of Innovative Methods Regarding the Removal of Sm(III)

The modern development of the construction materials sector determines the use of rare earth metals (REM) for various purposes. In particular, REM are added as basic alloying elements into magnesium alloys to increase alloy durability and strength. The complex systematic study of structural components and REM interaction are the basis for the phase state monitoring of multicomponent oxide polyfunctional materials. In addition, on the preparatory stage, layers with specified construction material coatings are formed. The paper presents experimental and theoretical results of studies of adsorptive bubble methods in the systems containing Samarium cations and surfactants, namely sodium dodecyl sulphate (NaDS). To identify the process mechanisms and prediction of optimal conditions of metal cations’ removal and separation by extraction, flotation, and ion flotation methods, one should know the pH of metal hydroxo-complexes and pH of the hydrate formation. The possibility of lanthanide ions’ removal (by the example of Samarium ions) by the solvent sublation method with NaDS as a collector and isooctyl alcohol as an extractant was studied. From the obtained experimental data, it was clear that the Sm3+ removal in acidic mediums is practically non-existent. The results obtained in this paper are topical in the production of electrode coating components, welding fluxes, sorbents for nuclear wastewater burial, wastewater treatment, highly porous heat-insulating and fire-resistant materials, cement, and concrete with improved frost resistance.

Topical trends in the application of rare-earth metals and their compounds in the production of magnetic and luminescent materials

This review is devoted to the review of current trends in the use of rare-earth metals (REM) in two major scientific and technical fields – the production of magnetic and luminescent materials. The reviews show that it is REM that gives this product unique properties. The information on the content of matrix and alloying components, their influence on achieving the required characteristics of the most popular magnetic materials is systematized. The prospects of new combinations of rare-earth metals in the further progress of the production of magnetic materials for various purposes are shown. Along with the traditional cobalt-samarium and neodymium-iron-boron compositions, new magnetic materials with increased hysteresis properties and temperature-time stability have been developed, phases with variable valence have been synthesized, which are used as memory elements in information systems. The article also reviews and summarizes the results of studies in another important area of REM application – the creation of luminescent materials. Phosphors based on compounds of rare earth metals are used in the production of high-pressure mercury lamps with improved characteristics, X-ray screens, high and low pressure fluorescent lamps, screens for electron-optical converters. Narrow-band phosphors based on REM compounds are of interest for lamps used in plant growing, especially for areas with a cold climate, where year-round plant growth is possible only with the use of additional radiation sources.The trends in the synthesis of luminescent materials using various rare-earth metals and their combinations are revealed. Attention is turned to the need to use chemically pure precursors of rare-earth metals in the creation of such materials. The prospects of creating nanophosphors, as well as the improvement of synthesis methods and diagnostic methods, are noted.

Current trends in the use of rare earth metals and their compounds in metallurgy and production of optical materials

It is difficult to name such an area of modern science and technology where rare earth metals (REM) would not be used. Generalization of all existing information on this issue due to its enormous volume and variety is hardly possible and advisable. Therefore, to write literary reviews in this area, one or two relevant segments in a global issue are usually selected and considered in detail. In this review, metallurgy and the production of optical materials are selected as such segments. In metallurgy, first of all, it should be noted the use of rare earth metals in the composition of multicomponent heat-resistant alloys for aviation and space technology, as deoxidizers, for the formation of a perfect structure when creating composite materials and coatings. The use of REM is growing both in ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy. In ferrous metallurgy, increasing the resistance of austenitic steel to oxidation by adding yttrium and cerium, creating composite coatings with additives of yttrium oxide to achieve special properties, etc. In nonferrous metallurgy, composites based on aluminum alloys with additives of cerium oxide; composites based on tin bronze doped with cerium oxides; titanium alloys doped with yttrium, etc. Rare earth metals are an integral part of research on the creation of lasers, solar cells, optoelectronic amplifiers, etc. for use in optoelectronics and other fields of glass materials and ceramics production. These areas of application of rare-earth metals include aluminosilicate glasses, borate glasses, and various types of optical ceramics. A group of new alloyed materials for various laser devices and installations has been created. Such materials include fluortellurite glasses doped with erbium, multicomponent fluoride glasses doped with europium and holmium, tungsten sodium phosphate glasses doped with trivalent REM ions, germanate glass doped with erbium and ytterbium, and others. Research in this area is continuously expanding. The study was supported by a grant from the Russian Science Foundation (project No. 20-13-00180).

Analysis of the use of rare earth metals in ferrous metallurgy of Russia and world

The analysis of the current state of production of rare earth metals (REM) in Russia and in the world was made. Information about REM production in different countries of the world and about new foreign projects for REM production and processing is provided. The article presents the balance of production, export and import of raw materials and products with REM, including scandium and yttrium, in Russia. The maximum volume of REM consumption in Russia was calculated taking into account imported products with REM. This data was compared with other countries, including the former USSR. Much attention is paid to the use of REM in metallurgy. Data on the influence of REM on the properties of cast iron and steel are presented. Information is given about the forms of REM used for their use in the Russian ferrous metallurgy. We have studied the structure of REM consumption in ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. On the example of two enterprises (one of them specializes in mass production, and the second – on production of special steels), the structure of REM consumption for steel alloying was studied by type and scope of its application. The development peculiarities of REM consumption in Russian ferrous metallurgy were investigated. The volume of consumption was calculated; data on imports of raw materials with REM for metallurgy and the producers of ferroalloys with REM in Russia is given. We have analyzed the spectrum of steel products with REM. A comparison of the consumption of REM in the metallurgy of Russia and foreign countries is presented. The reasons for insufficient consumption of REM in the Russian metallurgy are considered, an assessment is given on the change in production volumes of certain types of steel and cast iron, and recommendations are made on the growth of REM consumption in metallurgy.

Analysis of the Use of Rare-Earth Metals in Ferrous Metallurgy in Russia and the World

Analysis of the Use of Rare-Earth Metals in Ferrous Metallurgy in Russia and the World

Rare earth metals utilization opportunities in the development of Indonesia defense industry technology

Industrial technology developments that entered the era of 4.0, other than to utilize the development of technology which based on the internet of things, big data, artificial intelligence, cloud, etc., also need to be supported by advanced material technology capabilities, namely rare earth metals. In the defense industry, rare earth metals used in defense and security equipment such as military vehicle coating materials that are able to dodge or absorb waves of enemy radar detection, jet engine components of aircraft fighter, missile weapons systems, electronic components, subsea detectors, satellite devices and material for radar, etc. This research was conducted through literature review and using the SWOT analysis method on the opportunities for the use of rare-earth metals in Indonesia defense industry products. The data used are secondary data, which includes data on the distribution of rare earth metals in Indonesia and the specifications of the use of rare-earth metals in the defense industry. Based on the defense requirements for defense products and the percentage of rare earth metals content in the territory of Indonesia, one of the opportunities for the use of rare-earth metals for defense industry products is in the application of anti-radar layers.

Structure and Mechanical and Technological Properties of Additive Material for Welding Heat-Resistant Steels

The analysis of casting defects in the hull parts of power equipment, and their elimination methods. The development directions of foreign researchers in the field of heat-resistant steels welding are established and analyzed. The prospects of using pearlite material for electric arc welding of defects is shown. The results of studies of the welding material of a pearlite structure, microalloyed by rare-earth metals, with high welding-technological, viscoplastic properties and impact strength are presented. An analysis of the state of scientific developments of metallurgists, material scientists and welders shows that, to ensure high viscoplastic properties of steel products, a promising direction is the use of rare earth metals as modifiers and microalloying additives as desulfurizers. The welding process is carried out without heating and subsequent heat treatment. For research, an experimental batch of electrodes was manufactured as rods in which the wire SV-08A was used. Doping was provided through an electrode coating. Alloying with rare-earth metals was carried out by introducing yttrium ligature into the coating, it was found that the introduction of rare-earth metals into the deposited metal allows to obtain high visco-plastic properties of the metal without reducing the carbon content, which, in turn, provides strength properties at the level specified by regulatory documentation.

Ni-Fe-Al mixed oxide for combined dry reforming and decomposition of methane with CO2 utilization

The chemical looping dry reforming of methane can be used to convert greenhouse gases into products with much desirable specification. However, developing an oxygen carrier with coke-tolerance and high oxygen exchange rate usually requires the use of rare-earth metals or lanthanides. In this study, by utilizing deposited surface carbon as a reaction intermediate rather than suppressing it, complete methane conversion was possible even with the earth-abundant metal oxide particles. To establish an optimized H2/CO ratio for the hydrocarbon synthesis, the CH4 feedstock was partially replaced with CO2. By itself, Ni-Al oxide exhibited deactivation due to the agglomeration arising from methane decomposition over the redox cycle. Fe-Al oxide had stable performance over cycles, but a sudden performance decline was observed when the amount of CO2 co-feeding exceeded a certain point. Incorporating Ni into the Fe-Al oxide was found to overcome these problems. The formation of a spinel phase with Fe alleviated the agglomeration, and enhanced CH4 activation under high CO2 partial pressure. The introduction of Ni also improved carbon gasification kinetics with CO2.

Phase Equilibria in a Liquid Metal of Fe-La-Ce-O System at 1600 °С

Thermodynamic modeling of phase equilibria in a liquid metal of Fe–La–Ce–O system at 1600 °С, using the technique of constructing the solubility surfaces for the components of a metal, was carried out. The calculation technique allowed assessing the depth of liquid iron de-oxidation at a complex use of lanthanum and cerium as deoxidizing agents. Also, diagrams of de-oxidants’ consumption for one ton of liquid oxygen-containing iron were calculated in the course of the work. Carrying out a calculation of the solubility surfaces for the components of a metal required simulation of phase diagrams of the following oxide systems: FeO–La2O3–Ce2O3, FeO–CeO2–La2O3, CeO2–La2O3–Ce2O3. The obtained results might be of interest for optimization of the use of rare-earth metals in steelmaking technology.

ELECTRONIC AND STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF Si–Gd–O ELECTRON EMITTER

Rare earth metals, when deposited and oxidized on semiconductor surfaces, can be an alternative to unstable compounds of alkali metals while creating stable and effective emitters with a low work function. A procedure giving rise to the adsorption of Gd and O atoms on the Si(100) surface and the formation of a Si–Gd–O film with a work function of about 1 eV in the near-surface region is described. The films have been studied using the Auger electron and photoelectron spectroscopy, as well as X-ray diffraction, atomic force and Kelvin probe force microscopy techniques. Information about their electronic properties, structure, surface morphology, and surface distribution of potential was obtained. The main component of the film formed on the Si surface is a polycrystalline Gd2O3phase, which plays the role of a matrix containing textured microcrystallites of one of the following phases: SiO2, GdO2, or GdSi2. The film surface consists of salient clusters 20[Formula: see text]nm to 80[Formula: see text]nm in diameter and up to 20[Formula: see text]nm in height, as well as craters up to 90[Formula: see text]nm in depth. The surface relief inhomogeneities correlate with the surface distribution of the local work function. This correlation can also be a result of the piezoelectric effect in the strained crystallites of the textured phase located in the bulk of the film. The obtained system was stable in time under vacuum conditions and heating up to [Formula: see text]C. The method proposed for the formation of surfaces with a low work function making use of rare earth metals can be applied to create effective and stable electron emitters.

Trends in the development of industrially assimilated renewable energy: the problem of resource restrictions

An analysis of the dynamics of the development of wind and solar energy and potential resource restrictions of the dissemination of these technologies of energy generation associated with intensive use of rare earth metals and some other mineral resources are presented. The technological prospects of various directions of decisions of the problem of resource restrictions, including escalating of volumes of extraction and production of necessary mineral components, creating substitutes of scarce materials and development of recycling are considered. The bottlenecks of each of the above-mentioned decisions were founded. Conclusions are drawn on the prospects of development of the Russian high-tech sectors of the economy in the context of the most probable decisions of the problem of resource restrictions of wind and solar energy. An increase in extraction and production of rare earth metals and some other materials, stimulation of domestic research and development (R&D) to create the permanent magnets of new types and new technologies of wind-powered generation, and reduction of the resource-demand and technology development of recycling the components of power equipment are the most prospective directions of progress. The innovations in these directions will be in demand on the European, Chinese, and North American markets in the near decades due to the end of the life cycle (approximately 30 years) of wind and solar energy projects started at the turn of the 20th–21st centuries (the beginning of exponential growth in plants). The private investors and relevant regional and federal government agencies can use the qualitative characteristics of the dynamics of industrially assimilated renewable energy to choose the most promising investment orientations in energy projects and selection of the most economically sound development methods of energy and related industries.

Investigation of Various Calcium-Based Transition Metal Oxides Compounds for the Oxygen Evolution Reaction in Alkaline Media

Electrocatalysts for oxygen evolution reaction in alkaline medium are critical for the successful realization of various kinds of aqueous metal-air rechargeable batteries as well as in the electrolysis of water. The seminal work of Trasatti, Buckris, and other researchers has unfolded the importance of metal oxides for the evolution of oxygen in alkaline medium. [1,2] Many of the state-of-the-art electrocatalysts based on metal oxides for the oxygen evolution reaction contain rare earth element as for example in the perovskites. [3] However, use of materials containing rare earth elements will be constraint for large scale deployment of systems due to its relatively high price and limited availability. Apart from rare earth element, some of the transition metals like cobalt also add significantly to the cost. Therefore, it would be very useful to maximize the activity of cobalt based complex metal oxide catalysts without the use of rare earth metals. In this work, we have explored calcium-based oxides of various complex transition metals such as cobalt and manganese for oxygen evolution reaction, with the goal of avoiding rare earth metals and minimizing the use of transition metal in the electrocatalyst.The sol-gel method using the citrate route was used to synthesize all calcium-based transition metal oxides catalysts.[3] The compounds of calcium and cobalt as well as calcium and manganese with the following formulae have been synthesized: CaCo2O4 ; Ca2Co2O5 ; Ca3Co4O9 ; Ca9Co12O28 ; CaMn2O4 ; Ca2Mn3O8 ; A simple two-step based sintering method was used to complete the synthesis of all these compounds.[3]. All catalysts samples were prepared by this method were sintered at temperatures in the range of 750 to 900 degrees Celsius. Powder X-ray diffraction method was used to identify the crystalline phases.The kinetics of oxygen evolution reaction was studied using thin film catalyst layers of the synthesized powder catalysts on a glassy carbon electrode. The steady state polarization method was used to evaluate oxygen evolution activity in 1 M potassium hydroxide solution for all the catalysts. Figure 1 shows the results of steady state current from polarization measurements for oxygen evolution experiments at 615 mV (vs. Hg/HgO 20% KOH) for all catalysts. The activity data has been normalized to the total mass of the catalyst.Fig. 1: Mass-normalized steady-state current for oxygen evolution reaction on various complex oxides of calcium, cobalt, and manganese at 615 mV (vs. reference Hg/HgO 20 % KOH) in 1M potassium hydroxide solution). The normalization is for unit mass of the transition metal.We find that the activity per milligram of cobalt varies considerably among the various types of cobalt-containing catalysts. Further, the manganese based catalysts have about one-fifth the activity of the best cobalt based catalysts. The presentation will discuss these findings in more elaborately and offer some insights for the design of new electrocatalysts. Acknowledgement The work presented here was funded by the ARPA-E Grids Program, the University of Southern California and the Loker Hydrocarbon Research Institute. References S. Trassati, J. Electroanal. Chem., 111, 125 (1980).J. O’M Bockris and T. Otagawa, J. Electrochem. Soc.,131, 290 (1984).S. Malkhandi, B. Yang, A. K. Manohar, A. Manivannan, G. K. S. Prakash and S. R. Narayanan, J. Phys. Chem. Lett., 3, 967 (2012).

Technical Note:Experimental Survey of Corrosion Potentials for Rare Earth Metals Ce, Er, Gd, La, and Nd as a Function of pH and Chloride Concentration

There is a paucity of information regarding electrochemical properties of rare earth (RE) elements in their pure metal form in aqueous solutions. Given the significant use of RE metals as functiona...

Magnetic vs. vapor-compression household refrigerators: A preliminary comparative life cycle assessment

This paper seeks to shed light on the question whether a magnetic household refrigerator with permanent magnets is more environmentally friendly than a conventional, vapor-compression refrigerator. Life cycle assessment has been used as a tool to investigate the environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of a magnetic refrigerator. The results of the assessment have been compared with those of a conventional, vapor-compression refrigerator with the same functionality. The comparison reveals that the magnetic refrigeration has higher environmental impacts mainly due to the use of rare-earth metals used in the magnet material. The possibility of compensating for this shortcoming through reuse of the magnetic materials or improving the design and efficiency of the magnetic refrigerator has been examined. In addition, the effect of the electricity mix consumed during the use phase, as one of the key factors determining the life cycle environmental impacts, has been investigated.

Current State of the Rare Earth Industry in Russia and Siberia

The paper presents an evaluation of the rare earth industry in the former Soviet Union, Russia and the world. Main areas of use of rare earth metals, primary resources of rare earth metals are considered, forecast for the industry development is given. The conclusion about the prospects and opportunities of the organization of production and separation of rare earth metals at the Siberian Chemical Combine in the West Siberian region is made, and possible sources of raw materials for this production are analyzed.

Material and Energy Requirement for Rare Earth Production

The use of rare earth metals (REMs) for new applications in renewable and communication technologies has increased concern about future supply as well as environmental burdens associated with the extraction, use, and disposal (losses) of these metals. Although there are several reports describing and quantifying the production and use of REM, there is still a lack of quantitative data about the material and energy requirements for their extraction and refining. Such information remains difficult to acquire as China is still supplying over 95% of the world REM supply. This article attempts to estimate the material and energy requirements for the production of REM based on the theoretical chemical reactions and thermodynamics. The results show the material and energy requirement varies greatly depending on the type of mineral ore, production facility, and beneficiation process selected. They also show that the greatest loss occurs during mining (25–50%) and beneficiation (10–30%) of RE minerals. We hope that the material and energy balances presented in this article will be of use in life cycle analysis, resource accounting, and other industrial ecology tools used to quantify the environmental consequences of meeting REM demand for new technology products.