Fuelwood Use Research Articles

Global biomass fuel resources

Abstract An overview of biomass for production of densified biofuels on a global scale is given. Bioenergy production as heat, electricity, and liquid fuels represents about 14% of the World's primary energy supply. About 25% of the usage is in industrialised countries and the other 75% is used in developing countries. There is an estimated 3870 (10 6 ) ha of forest worldwide. The average area of forest and wooded land per inhabitant varies between 6.6 ha in Oceania, 0.2 ha in Asia, and 1.4 ha in Europe. The world's total above-ground biomass in forests amounts to 420 (10 9 ) tonnes, of which more than 40% is located in South America. Estimates by FAO (2000) show that global production and use of woodfuel and roundwood reached about 3300 (10 6 ) m 3 in 1999. About 55% is used directly as fuel, e.g. as split firewood, and about 90% of this is produced and consumed in the developing countries. The remaining 45% is used as industrial raw material, but about 40% of this is used as primary or secondary process residues, suitable only for energy production. The total sustainable worldwide biomass energy potential is about 100 EJ/a (the share of woody biomass is 41.6 EJ/a), which is about 30% of total global energy consumption today. About 40 EJ/a of available biomass is used for energy. Nearly 60% of this biomass is used only in Asia. A comparison between the available potential with current use shows that on a worldwide level about two-fifths of the existing biomass potential is used, and in most areas of the world the current biomass use is clearly below the available potential. Only in Asia does the current use exceed the available potential. Therefore, an increased biomass use is possible, e.g. for production of densified biofuels, in most countries.

Flows of nitrogen and phosphorus in Finland—the forest industry and use of wood fuels

In this paper, we present the flows of nitrogen and phosphorus in the Finnish forest industry and wood fuel consumption in 1995–1999. The input of nitrogen in wood to the industry was 27 300 tonnes per year and the input of phosphorus 3180 tonnes per year, on average. Despite the small amount of bark compared to wood material, the nutrient richness of the bark makes it an important factor for the flows. Furthermore, the chemicals used in the forest industrial processes play an important role: total input of N in various chemicals was approximately 19 100 tonnes and that of P 4500 tonnes, respectively. Although the Finnish forest industry has several features typical for industrial ecosystems, it can be argued that it constitutes an open cycle of nitrogen and phosphorus.

Bioenergy policy in Finland

Increase in the production and use of bioenergy has been among the main priorities of energy policy in Finland since the first energy crisis in 1973. Imports of fossil fuels had increased significantly, reducing self-sufficiency and security of energy supply. Available hydropower resources had to a great extent been developed, and nuclear power plants were planned to provide the base-load generation needed to meet increased electricity consumption. Wood fuels and peat were considered optimal choices for combined heat and power (CHP) production in district heating and industry. Promotion incentives that included investment subsidies, taxes on fossil fuels, research and development, and dissemination activities were implemented with good results: in 20 years the annual use of peat increased from nearly nil to 80 PJ in 1996, and the increase in the annual use of wood fuels in the same period was also 80 PJ. Research and development on bioenergy was intensive because technologies feasible for local conditions were not available and the competitiveness of bioenergy was poor except in the case of wood residues from the forest industry. Examples of important innovations and their successful commercialisation are several fluidised bed concepts for CHP plants using fuels of low and variable energy values and new peat harvesting concepts. Because R&D investments were limited it was decided on the national level that the core technologies for wind and solar energy could be imported from other countries with higher R&D expenditure, although some important components and local applications were developed by the Finnish industry. In the 1990s the need for mitigation of human-induced climate change brought a new driver for renewable energy sources (RES). Earlier drivers, such as security of energy supply, increase of employment opportunities in rural areas, and new use for set-aside fields, still existed. CO 2 taxes were already introduced on fossil fuels and peat in 1990 in Finland. The climate strategy of Finland from 1999 includes the Action Plan on Renewable Energy Sources. National targets of RES for 2010 are 27 % (385 PJ) of the primary energy consumption and 31.5 % (27 TWh) of the electricity demand, up from 22 % and 27 % in 1997. RES will take care of about one-quarter (4-5 million tonnes (Mt) of CO 2 equivalent) of the greenhouse gas emission reduction needed to meet Finland's commitment for the first Kyoto period, 2008-2012. In 2002, bioenergy, excluding peat, covered 20 % of the total primary energy consumption and 10 % of the electricity demand in Finland, which are the highest figures in the industrialised countries. The available technical biomass resources would enable even the doubling of the current utilisation of bioenergy without decreasing the production volume of the wood-processing industry. National promotion incentives are currently being updated because deregulation of the energy market, the EU and worldwide mechanisms, such as emission allowance trading, green certificates and Kyoto mechanisms, will radically change the market for RES.

The Fuelwood Crisis in Southern Africa – Relating Fuelwood Use to Livelihoods in a Rural Village

The aim of the paper is to examine wood as a source of fuel energy in rural South Africa and factors influencing its usage. The analysis is based on household profiles and characteristics (e.g., gender, caste, population and income) in a livelihood framework. Fuelwood consumption was estimated to be 692 kg/capita, and 4343 kg/user household per annum, valued at $311 per household. Consumption was modelled in relation to informal and formal cash incomes, and population of children, female and male adults. However, only the population of female adults could significantly influence consumption of fuelwood. This implied that where there were more women in a household, consumption was likely to be high. This might be due to the majority of women doing the cooking and heating in the household. Any change in the value of cash income of households had no significant impacts on fuelwood consumed. Cash incomes might therefore not be strong determinants of the types of energy used by rural households. The average quantity of wood consumed for fuel energy in summer was not significantly different from consumption in winter. Some households perpetually used more wood than others. The study further showed that harvesting of wood for fuel energy is not opportunistic, but requires reallocation of time for other livelihood activities in times of shortage. The fuelwood crisis is not simple and not only about shortage of fuelwood and/or population growth but linked to household profiles and other livelihood strategies and subsequently vulnerability of households. These would require thorough investigation and understanding in relation to precise demand and supply data for fuelwood before the fuelwood problem can be sufficiently managed.

Fuelwood availability and use in the Richtersveld National Park, South Africa

Concern has been voiced about the possible over-use of fuelwood from the riparian fringe by pastoralist herders in the Richtersveld National Park (RNP). This coincided with the current examination and modelling of the supply and use of ecosystem goods and services in the Gariep Basin as part of the Southern African Millennium Assessment (SAfMA). This paper reports on a study to index the current availability of deadwood within the riparian zone of RNP, its relationship with proximity to human habitation, and species preferences of the local herders. Deadwood availability was assessed per woody species and on the ground in 12 transects within the riparian fringe. Herders were interviewed regarding their species preferences, and the composition of woodpiles was examined. There was no relationship between the percentage of attached deadwood on the tree, or the percentage deadwood ground cover, and the distance from herder stockposts. Euclea pseudobenus and Tamarix usneoides were the dominant species in the riparian fringe. There was strong selection for Ziziphus mucronata as a fuelwood species and only marginal or random selection for E. pseudobenus. Tamarix usneoides and Prosopis sp. were abundant in the riparian zone, but were not used for fuelwood. There was a significant difference between species with respect to the mean proportion of the stem that was dead, the highest being Z. mucronata (± 28 % deadwood), followed by T. usneoides (± 12 %). Most of the Prosopis trees had no deadwood. Across all species, the mean percentage dead per tree was approximately 15 %. Additionally, detached deadwood covered just less than 9 % of ground area, averaged across all plots and transects. All the variables measured indicated that there seems to be little need for concern over the current fuelwood extraction activities of pastoralists within the RNP. There was no clear evidence of cutting of branches or deadwood. The abundance of both attached and detached deadwood was not depleted close to human habitation. There was still abundant deadwood, even on preferred species. The most preferred species (Ziziphus mucronata) had the greatest mean proportion of deadwood. The herders stated that they only used deadwood, and that there was plenty. They rarely used driftwood washed down the river, although there was an abundance of it. Thus, overall, there was no sign of depletion of the deadwood resource, even on favoured species, or degradation of the productive capacity for deadwood.

Reassessing the fuelwood situation in developing countries

Analysis of the fuelwood situation has been hampered by lack of reliable information, and has been the subject of considerable debate. The present paper assesses the implications of recent information on the subject. New data and recent more accurate projections show that increasing urbanisation and rising incomes lead to fuelwood users shifting to charcoal and other fuels. The rate of increase in fuelwood use is slowing down and in some areas consumption is now in decline. In contrast, charcoal use is growing strongly and is becoming a much larger part of the woodfuels total in some regions. In general, the new information supports arguments that fuelwood use seldom requires major interventions to maintain or augment supplies, though in some areas charcoal may. However, though woodfuels may be less of a concern to the security of the forest estate than was previously feared, huge numbers of people continue to rely on woodfuels as a source of energy or income, and will continue to do so. The review argues that these linkages constitute a larger component of the contribution that forestry can make to poverty alleviation than appears to be currently reflected in most forestry and agroforestry policies and programmes. Areas that could need attention in order to address such neglect are discussed.

Deforestation in afforestation priority zone in Sudano-Sahelian Nigeria

Deforestation is a serious problem in Sudano-Sahelian Nigeria though afforestation is needed and appears to be a priority of government. Afforestation programme has failed primarily because of government’s (in)actions that appear to pitch government policies against its practices, differences between what the grassroots want and what governmental bodies with responsibility for afforestation can provide, financial constraints that have hamstrung field operations and operators. Also, people do not believe that government is serious about afforestation. The causes of deforestation include lack of effective alternative energy options for majority of people, high profit margins in the fuelwood economy and recent energy policies of government. The tyranny of the energy market discourages use of environmental knowledge in household energy policy decisions. Many households using alternative energy prior to the present condition of enduring energy scarcity have reverted to the use of fuelwood causing reversed energy transition and increased rates of deforestation. Solutions to the deforestation problem must be anchored in programmes that improve socioeconomic security of the poor, enable them to procure alternative (non-biomass) energy and lighten pressure on forest resources dependence for energy. Framing of macro-economic policies should give consideration to their implications for the poor and the natural environment.

Carbon emissions from fires in tropical and subtropical ecosystems

AbstractGlobal carbon emissions from fires are difficult to quantify and have the potential to influence interannual variability and long‐term trends in atmospheric CO2 concentrations. We used 4 years of Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Visible and Infrared Scanner (VIRS) satellite data and a biogeochemical model to assess spatial and temporal variability of carbon emissions from tropical fires. The TRMM satellite data extended between 38°N and 38°S and covered the period from 1998 to 2001. A relationship between TRMM fire counts and burned area was derived using estimates of burned area from other satellite fire products in Africa and Australia and reported burned areas from the United States. We modified the Carnegie‐Ames‐Stanford‐Approach (CASA) biogeochemical model to account for both direct combustion losses and the decomposition from fire‐induced mortality, using both TRMM and Sea‐viewing Wide Field of view Sensor (SeaWiFS) satellite data as model drivers. Over the 1998–2001 period, we estimated that the sum of carbon emissions from tropical fires and fuel wood use was 2.6 Pg C yr−1. An additional flux of 1.2 Pg C yr−1 was released indirectly, as a result of decomposition of vegetation killed by fire but not combusted. The sum of direct and indirect carbon losses from fires represented 9% of tropical and subtropical net primary production (NPP). We found that including fire processes in the tropics substantially alters the seasonal cycle of net biome production by shifting carbon losses to months with low soil moisture and low rates of soil microbial respiration. Consequently, accounting for fires increases growing season net flux by ∼12% between 38°N and 38°S, with the greatest effect occurring in highly productive savanna regions.

Minimizing fuel wood consumption through the evolution of hot ston cooker as an alternative domestic energy supply

The central objective of this paper is to minimize fuelwood consumption through evolving alternative domestic energy. Data on alternative domestic energy sources, and use fuel wood consumption during scarcity of petroleum were collected using structured questionnaires. Data on time spent to cook yam, race and beans with hot stone were also collected. The hot stone cooker design was observed to cook food faster. The application of hot stone cooker during the period of scarcity of petroleum products would minimize the use of fuelwood as a source of domestic energy supply. This would lead to a sustainable environment. The study recommended the adoption of the hot stone cooker so as to ensure sustainable environmental protection through minimizing the use of fuelwood. (Journal of Agriculture and Social Research: 2003 3(1): 40-54)

Dependency of local people on the forests of Gunung Halimun National Park, West Java, Indonesia

This study analyzes the role of Gunung Halimun National Park in the livelihoods of three communities living in and around or near the park, and the impact of the national park on the local people already living in or using resources from the area before it was designated as a national park. Local people practiced agriculture in the park area and collected forest products even within the park itself. Additionally, local people used a variety of plants, including trees, shrubs, herbs and vines, for food, construction, everyday implements, medicine, fuel and so on. Local people in the three villages frequently used domesticated plants, from swidden cultivation or gardens, as food. The use of fuelwood differed among the three villages. The people in the villages adjacent to the park and within an enclave inside the park had alternative places to gather fuelwood. They planted trees that were useful for fuelwood in gardens or took branches of clove or tea trees from neighboring plantation areas. However, as the amount of fuelwood from these resources did not meet their daily needs, they also gathered fuelwood from the national park forest. On the other hand, the fact that one village was located (illegally) within the park did not promote strong incentives for its people to manage domesticated plants for fuelwood; instead they depended largely on the park’s forest. It is concluded that the existence of the national park scarcely changed the relationship between local people and the surrounding environment, but that the presence of local people had fewer negative effects than other disturbing influences like illegal logging or conversion. Rather, the current lack of adequate monitoring has made it possible for customary use of resources and the ideology of nature conservation to coexist. The unclear relationships between the park management and local people may be effective for the ad hoc park management, but may not necessarily ensure biological conservation for the future. Integrated management of the protected areas can be achieved only when institutional arrangements are constructed, in which benefits from protected areas are distributed equally among related stakeholders, leading to effective collaborative management.

Inverse modeling of carbon monoxide surface emissions using Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory network observations

A three‐dimensional (3‐D) inverse modeling scheme is used to constrain the direct surface emissions of carbon monoxide CO. A priori estimates of CO emissions are taken from various inventories and are included in the IMAGES model to compute the distribution of CO. The modeled CO mixing ratios are compared with observations at 39 CMDL stations, averaged over the years 1990–1996. The interannual variability of CO sources is therefore ignored. We show that the method used (time‐dependent synthesis inversion) is able to adjust the surface fluxes on a monthly basis in order to improve the agreement between the observed and the modeled CO mixing ratios at the stations. The Earth surface is divided into regions. The spatial distribution of CO sources is fixed inside each of these regions. The inversion scheme optimizes the intensities of the emissions fluxes for the following processes: technological activities, forest and savanna burning, agricultural waste burning and fuelwood use, soil/vegetation emissions, and oceanic emissions. The inversion significantly reduces the uncertainties on the surface sources over Europe, North America and Asia. The most striking result is the increase (almost by a factor of 2) of CO flux from Asia in all a posteriori scenarios. The uncertainties on the Southern Hemisphere emissions remain large after the inversion, because the current observational surface network is too sparse at these latitudes. The inversion, moreover, shifts the peak in biomass burning emissions in the Southern Hemisphere by one month. This temporal shift ensures a better match of the observed and modeled CO seasonal cycle at the Ascension Island station. We also attempted to optimize the annual and global productions of CO due to methane and NMHC. With the current set of data, the scheme was not able to differentiate between these two sources, and hence only the total chemical production of CO can be optimized.

Woodfuel procurement strategies of district heating plants

Woodfuel use in the Swedish district heating sector increased significantly from 1985 to 1999. This study analysed strategies and considerations concerning woodfuel procurement in district heating plants. Priorities and concerns in the industry involved an increased woodfuel share, ambitions to create an environmental image, cost minimisation, awareness about the role of energy policies for fuel choice, improvement of woodfuel quality and the ambition to maintain a competitive woodfuel market with several suppliers. Factor analysis yielded five dimensions in the woodfuel procurement strategies among the district heating companies: (1) increased woodfuel use; (2) import; (3) spot market woodfuel purchases; (4) focus on refined woodfuels; and (5) using price only when deciding whether to use woodfuels or other fuels. Five clusters were defined along the three strategy dimensions (1)–(3). The clusters differed concerning size, experiences from the introduction of woodfuels, perceptions about woodfuels and strategies employed to date. This paper describes different strategies that the district heating companies apply on the woodfuel market. The conclusion is that policies should consider this diversity in procurement strategies, mitigate their negative side-effects and assist to make them cost-effective.

Rural household responses to fuelwood scarcity in Nyando District, Kenya

AbstractThe fuelwood debate over supply–demand balances is well rehearsed; and the use of simplistic linear models to explain supply–demand differentials hardly captures the complex patterns of use and dynamics of fuelwood in the rural household. This paper shows that households in Nyando District have evolved sophisticated local response mechanisms and strategies in coping with the fuelwood scarcity. Data collected through a multi‐method approach revealed, among others, a higher percentage of planted trees in Kochogo than in Awasi study sites. Despite this high proliferation of trees, rural households in Kochogo still identified fuelwood scarcity as a growing problem. The seeming ‘abundance’ of trees is not synonymous with the supply of fuelwood, or the alleviation of fuelwood scarcity. Rural households in Kochogo therefore resort to the market to purchase fuelwood, as well as adapt various fuel‐saving strategies and mechanisms to cope with the apparent scarcity. The purchase of crop residues from the market is a strong indicator of this scarcity, being simply lack of access to or entitlement to trees. The situation is different in Awasi, where there is a higher percentage of natural trees and clump bushes, which provide a relative abundance of fuelwood. This condition has encouraged local households not to keep a stock of fuelwood, but simply to collect from nearby bushes when required. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Fuel wood use in South Africa: Where to in the 21stCentury?

(2002). Fuel wood use in South Africa: Where to in the 21st Century? Southern African Forestry Journal: Vol. 196, No. 1, pp. 1-7.

Biomass energy potential in Turkey

Biomass energy includes fuelwood, agricultural residues, animal wastes, charcoal and other fuels derived from biological sources. It currently accounts for about 14% of world energy consumption. Biomass is the main source of energy for many developed and developing countries. In Turkey energy wood is available in the form of forest chips, fuelwood, wood waste, wood pellets, and it is also produced to a very limited extent from willow crops in short rotation forestry. The major part of wood harvested in the forest area (approximately 10 million ha) ends up as energy wood directly or indirectly after having been used for other purposes first. An overview of biomass potential and utilization in Turkey is presented. In 1999, the biomass share of the total energy consumption of the country is 10 percent. The level of fuelwood use together with that of other agricultural and animal wastes is compared with the commercial energy use within the country's global energy balance. The possibilities of increasing fuelwood production through afforestation programmes and substitution for commercial fuels are discussed. Biogas utilization in the rural regions is also reviewed, emphasizing its possible contribution.

Fuelwood-fired cookstoves in Sri Lanka and related issues

The historical development of cookstoves and improved cookstove (ICS) development and dissemination programmes conducted in Sri Lanka are reviewed and the current utilization patterns of different cookstoves are estimated. Performance characteristics and emission factors of most commonly used stove categories are presented. Environmental and health implications of domestic cooking are discussed. Impacts of dissemination of ICSs, in terms of fuelwood savings and emission reductions, are also estimated. The results indicate that only 12% of the fuelwood used for cooking in the domestic sector is consumed in ICSs and around 41% of fuelwood could be saved by dissemination of ICSs. This would lead to a considerable reduction in the emissions generated from fuelwood use in domestic cooking.

Simulating demographic and socioeconomic processes on household level and implications for giant panda habitats

Human activities have significantly affected wildlife habitats. Although the ecological effects of human impacts have been demonstrated in many studies, the socioeconomic drivers underlying these human impacts have seldom been studied. We developed a household-based, stochastic, and dynamic model that simulates the impacts of household demographic and socioeconomic interactions on fuelwood use, a key factor affecting the quantity and quality of habitats for the giant pandas ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca). Using Wolong Nature Reserve (China) as a case study, this model mimics household production and consumption processes and integrates various demographic and socioeconomic factors. Household interviews conducted in 1998 within the Reserve provided the data for parameterization. The simulation results fit well with both the data used in constructing the model and with a set of independent data. Age structure and cropland area were found to be the most sensitive factors in terms of fuelwood consumption, and thus deserve more attention in panda habitat conservation. This model could help reserve managers to understand the interrelationships among local economy, local cultural traditions, and habitat degradation, facilitating more scientific and economically efficient policymaking.

Non-forest fuelwood acquisition and transition in type of energy for domestic uses in the changing agricultural landscape of the Upper Citarum Watershed, Indonesia

Despite of energy transition — from traditional to commercial fuels — that has been occurring in the last three decades, the role of non-forest fuelwood in fulfilling domestic energy in rural areas of Indonesia is still significant. A study on fuelwood use and the contribution of agroecosystem components in fulfilling fuelwood requirements was carried out in the Citarum Watershed, a watershed that has been experiencing very rapid development in agricultural and industrial sectors in West Java, Indonesia. The study examines the importance of non-forest sources of fuelwood for domestic energy and estimates the subsidy gained from fuelwood use (in kerosene equivalent and US$ equivalent). The results indicate that, even though there has been a transition in the type of energy used in the study area, fuelwood use is still significant. Although, the agricultural landscape in the watershed is rapidly changing, the existing agroecosystem components, bamboo-tree gardens in particular, still play a substantial role in fulfilling the fuelwood requirements of the local people. The study concludes that the decline of non-forest fuelwood sources will affect considerably the magnitude of ‘free’ energy subsidy which in turn will affect the livelihood of the villagers, especially those with lower income. Therefore, to ensure the sustainability of fuelwood supplies from the present agroecosystem components, efforts in maintaining these sources should be undertaken.

Could fuelwood use contribute to household poverty in Nigeria?

To show whether fuelwood use could contribute to household poverty in Nigeria, the paper has used the discounted cash flow micro-economic assessment to evaluate the annual worth cost of harnessing fuelwood for cooking and water heating in Nigerian households, for an average household size of five persons per day. Findings indicate that 9786 Naira is being expended on cooking and water heating activities at the household level in Nigeria which is much greater than the mean national household income of about 5150 Naira a year. The study has shown that households using fuelwood are made poorer and left with no savings.

A Geographical Analysis of the Swedish Woodfuel Market

The geographical variation in Swedish woodfuel market characteristics for the district heating sector has been studied using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and cross - sectional Tobit analysis. The results indicate that local availability and competition for woodfuels influence the woodfuel consumption at inland heating plants. The factors affecting the decision to use woodfuel at heating plants close to seaports, however, were not captured by the model, suggesting that coastal location reduces dependency on the local woodfuel market. The effects of changes in local woodfuel availability on woodfuel use by an inland heating plant are presented and discussed.