Use Of Cooking Research Articles

Asthma-related outcomes associated with indoor air pollutants among schoolchildren from four informal settlements in two municipalities in the Western Cape Province of South Africa.

The health impact of indoor air pollution in informal settlement households has not been extensively studied in South Africa. This cross-sectional study investigated the association between asthma and common indoor exposures among schoolchildren from four informal settlements located in two municipalities in the Western Cape Province. A total of 590 children, aged 9-11years, were recruited. The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) questionnaire was administered to caregivers. Pulmonary function assessment included spirometry and fractional exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO). Phadiatop test for atopy was done. The prevalence of doctor-diagnosed asthma was 3.4% (n=20) among whom only 50% were on treatment. The prevalence of current wheeze was 12.9%, and 17.6% had airway obstruction (FEV1 <lower limit of normal), while 10.2% had airway inflammation (FeNO>35ppb). In adjusted logistic regression models, dampness, visible mold growth, paraffin use for cooking, and passive smoking were associated with a twofold to threefold increased risk in upper and lower airway outcomes. The strongest association was that of visible mold growth with rhinitis (adjusted odds ratio-aOR 3.37, 95% CI: 1.69-6.71). Thus, there is a need for improved diagnosis of childhood asthma and Indoor Air Quality in informal settlement households.

Impact of cooking and fermentation by lactic acid bacteria on phenolic profile of quinoa and buckwheat seeds

In this work, quinoa and buckwheat cooked seeds were fermented by two autochthonous strains of lactic acid bacteria isolated from the corresponding seeds, namely Lactobacillus paracasei A1 2.6 and Pediococcus pentosaceus GS·B, with lactic acid chemically acidified seeds as control. The impact of cooking and fermentation on the comprehensive phenolic profile of quinoa and buckwheat seeds was evaluated through untargeted ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QTOF-MS). Samples were analyzed also for in vitro antioxidant capacity (as FRAP and ORAC assays) and total phenolic content (TPC). The in vitro spectrophotometric assays highlighted that the microbial fermentation was more efficient in increasing (p < .05) the TPC and in vitro antioxidant potential in quinoa cooked seeds. However, an increase (p < .05) in TPC and ORAC radical scavenging was observed in both pseudocereals after the different cooking processes (i.e., boiling or toasting).The untargeted phenolic profiling depicted the comprehensive phenolic composition in these matrices. Raw seeds of both pseudocereals possessed a similar phenolic content (4.4 g kg−1 equivalents; considering free and bound fractions). Besides, the metabolomics-based approach showed that all treatments (i.e., cooking and fermentation) induced the release of specific classes, namely phenolic acids and tyrosols. The PLS-DA multivariate approach identified in flavonoids the best markers allowing to discriminate the different treatments considered (i.e., cooking, chemical acidification and microbial fermentation). These findings support the use of cooking and microbial fermentation to ensure the health-promoting properties of non-wheat grains, such as buckwheat and quinoa.

Cro-Magnon and Qafzeh - Vive La Differences

The obligatory use of cooking by the Mousterian occupants of the north temperate zone relaxed the forces of selection maintaining archaic tooth size and led to the reductions that shaped modern human face form from the Middle East to the Atlantic coast. The delay in the spread of cooking techniques accounts for the later onset of dental reduction to the south. The development and use of projectiles in the African Middle Stone Age led to gracilization and the earlier appearance of "modern" post-cranial and reflected cranial form in Africa. The subsequent adoption of the use of projectiles elsewhere was followed by gracilization and the appearance of "modern" post-cranial morphology. The craniofacial form of Cro-Magnon allies it with the living populations of northwestern Europe, specifically with the fringes in Scandinavia and England, but not with the European continent. Qafzeh represents the pattern still found in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly West Africa. Although the craniofacial configuration in both is "modern," the dentition of Qafzeh is archaic in size and form. Qafzeh is a logical representative of the ancestral form for sub-Saharan Africans but not for Cro-Magnon and subsequent Europeans.

P2544Risk of cardiovascular death by long-term solid fuel use for cooking and implications of switching to clean fuels: a prospective cohort study of 340,000 chinese adults

P2544Risk of cardiovascular death by long-term solid fuel use for cooking and implications of switching to clean fuels: a prospective cohort study of 340,000 chinese adults

Investigation of Physical and Chemical Parameters of Self-mining Oils

The aim of the article is to determine physical and chemical indicators of oil quality from flaxseed and thistle to extend their use in the restaurant industry. Methodology of investigation consists in organoleptic, physic – chemical, in particular: fatty acid composition of selenium – containing oils, which is determined by liquid chromatography, amount of fatty acid isomers is in computer modeling of spectra of chromatograms; fat indicators are calculation method; coefficient of refraction – refract metric; color, iodine and peroxide number is titration; individual indicators are determined by organoleptic methods. Scientific novelty is to determine the total fatty acid composition and the main indicators of the vegetable fats quality and to determine the prospects for their use in cooking. Conclusions. The article presents and analyzes organoleptic and physic-chemical indicators of fat quality, which have been defined.

Quantifying the rural residential energy transition in China from 1992 to 2012 through a representative national survey

Rural household energy use for cooking and heating is an important source of air pollutants in China, as it affects both human health and climate change. However, the magnitude of rural household energy use, especially during the recent rapid socioeconomic transition period, has not been well quantified. Here, we present first-hand nationwide data from a 34,489-household energy-mix survey and a 1,670-household fuel-weighing campaign. We found that the consumption of wood and crop residues in rural China decreased by 63% and 51%, respectively, from 1992 to 2012, and these decreases were much greater than the 15% and 8%, respectively, reported by the International Energy Agency and Food and Agriculture Organization. The rapid residential energy transition over these two decades was primarily driven by the rapid socioeconomic development. One important implication of this transition is the significant reduction in the emissions of major air pollutants, especially incomplete combustion products leading to significant impacts on health and climate. Use of wood and crop residue for cooking and heating in rural China is a significant source of carbon emissions and air pollution. Using a survey of more than 34,000 households, researchers show that between 1992 and 2012 usage of these fuels decreased by much more than previous estimates, due primarily to rising incomes.

Association of Solid Fuel Use With Risk of Cardiovascular and All-Cause Mortality in Rural China

When combusted indoors, solid fuels generate a large amount of pollutants such as fine particulate matter. To assess the associations of solid fuel use for cooking and heating with cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. This nationwide prospective cohort study recruited participants from 5 rural areas across China between June 2004 and July 2008; mortality follow-up was until January 1, 2014. A total of 271 217 adults without a self-reported history of physician-diagnosed cardiovascular disease at baseline were included, with a random subset (n = 10 892) participating in a resurvey after a mean interval of 2.7 years. Self-reported primary cooking and heating fuels (solid: coal, wood, or charcoal; clean: gas, electricity, or central heating), switching of fuel type before baseline, and use of ventilated cookstoves. Death from cardiovascular and all causes, collected through established death registries. Among the 271 217 participants, the mean (SD) age was 51.0 (10.2) years, and 59% (n = 158 914) were women. A total of 66% (n = 179 952) of the participants reported regular cooking (at least weekly) and 60% (n = 163 882) reported winter heating, of whom 84% (n = 150 992) and 90% (n = 147 272) used solid fuels, respectively. There were 15 468 deaths, including 5519 from cardiovascular causes, documented during a mean (SD) of 7.2 (1.4) years of follow-up. Use of solid fuels for cooking was associated with greater risk of cardiovascular mortality (absolute rate difference [ARD] per 100 000 person-years, 135 [95% CI, 77-193]; hazard ratio [HR], 1.20 [95% CI, 1.02-1.41]) and all-cause mortality (ARD, 338 [95% CI, 249-427]; HR, 1.11 [95% CI, 1.03-1.20]). Use of solid fuels for heating was also associated with greater risk of cardiovascular mortality (ARD, 175 [95% CI, 118-231]; HR, 1.29 [95% CI, 1.06-1.55]) and all-cause mortality (ARD, 392 [95% CI, 297-487]; HR, 1.14 [95% CI, 1.03-1.26]). Compared with persistent solid fuel users, participants who reported having previously switched from solid to clean fuels for cooking had a lower risk of cardiovascular mortality (ARD, 138 [95% CI, 71-205]; HR, 0.83 [95% CI, 0.69-0.99]) and all-cause mortality (ARD, 407 [95% CI, 317-497]; HR, 0.87 [95% CI, 0.79-0.95]), while for heating, the ARDs were 193 (95% CI, 128-258) and 492 (95% CI, 383-601), and the HRs were 0.57 (95% CI, 0.42-0.77) and 0.67 (95% CI, 0.57-0.79), respectively. Among solid fuel users, use of ventilated cookstoves was also associated with lower risk of cardiovascular mortality (ARD, 33 [95% CI, -9 to 75]; HR, 0.89 [95% CI, 0.80-0.99]) and all-cause mortality (ARD, 87 [95% CI, 20-153]; HR, 0.91 [95% CI, 0.85-0.96]). In rural China, solid fuel use for cooking and heating was associated with higher risks of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. These risks may be lower among those who had previously switched to clean fuels and those who used ventilation.

Assessment of Perceived Health and Environmental Problems of Household Energy Consumption among Ilese Ijebu Residents Southwestern Nigeria

The study was carried out among Ilese-Ijebu residents southwestern Nigeria, to assess their perceived health and environmental problems associated with different sources of household energy use for cooking, then their perception and acceptability of adopting other alternative source of energy (biogas). A focused group discussion and self-structured questionnaire administration methodologies were adopted to elicit information on their current energy sources and adoption for alternative energy source (biogas). The researchers randomly selected twenty five (25) households to include the total sample size of one hundred (100) and organized an interactive session on the subject matter, during which three prepared forms were given out to the participants to filled their demographics characteristics, sources of energy for household cooking with associated health and environmental problems and perception and acceptability of biogas, descriptive statistics and likert scale technique were used to analyze the results obtained. The results of the analysis showed that, the respondents do make use of more than one source of energy for cooking, kerosene stoves (95), firewood (63), charcoal stove(32), while lesser people made use of liquefied gas (12) and electricity (5). Average numbers of respondents 50-60 are aware of associated health and environmental problems with firewood and charcoal, but not ready to use electricity and liquefied gas because of bills and fire hazards when the energy sources is not properly handled. However, the likert scale results of the positive score of 227 and the negative score of 598 on the acceptability of use of biogas for domestic cooking indicating that, presently, the residents are not ready to adopt the biogas as the alternative energy. Therefore, there is need to organize massive awareness campaign, health education talks among the residents on the effect of air pollution associated with household energy sources and consumption, health and financial benefits of adopting other alternative clean energy source.

Solid fuel use for cooking and its health effects on the elderly in rural China.

Indoor air pollution is mainly caused by solid fuel use for cooking in developing countries. Many previous studies focused on its health risks on the children and in specific local area. This paper investigates household energy usage and transition for cooking in rural China and the health effects on the elderly. A national large-scale dataset CHARLS (China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study) covering 450 villages and communities is employed. Logit regressions were used to quantitatively estimate the effects, after controlling for some factors such as income, demographic, and geographical variables. The results robustly show that compared to non-solid fuels, solid fuel use significantly increases the possibility of chronic lung diseases (30%), exacerbation of chronic lung diseases (95%), seizure of heart disease (1.80 times), and decreases self-evaluated health status of the elderly (1.38 times). Thus, it is urgent to improve clean energy access for cooking in rural China.

Multiple Household Water Sources and Their Use in Remote Communities With Evidence From Pacific Island Countries

AbstractGlobal water research and monitoring typically focus on the household's “main source of drinking‐water.” Use of multiple water sources to meet daily household needs has been noted in many developing countries but rarely quantified or reported in detail. We gathered self‐reported data using a cross‐sectional survey of 405 households in eight communities of the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) and five Solomon Islands (SI) communities. Over 90% of households used multiple sources, with differences in sources and uses between wet and dry seasons. Most RMI households had large rainwater tanks and rationed stored rainwater for drinking throughout the dry season, whereas most SI households collected rainwater in small pots, precluding storage across seasons. Use of a source for cooking was strongly positively correlated with use for drinking, whereas use for cooking was negatively correlated or uncorrelated with nonconsumptive uses (e.g., bathing). Dry season water uses implied greater risk of water‐borne disease, with fewer (frequently zero) handwashing sources reported and more unimproved sources consumed. Use of multiple sources is fundamental to household water management and feasible to monitor using electronic survey tools. We contend that recognizing multiple water sources can greatly improve understanding of household‐level and community‐level climate change resilience, that use of multiple sources confounds health impact studies of water interventions, and that incorporating multiple sources into water supply interventions can yield heretofore‐unrealized benefits. We propose that failure to consider multiple sources undermines the design and effectiveness of global water monitoring, data interpretation, implementation, policy, and research.

Effect of Household Air Pollution Exposures on Respiratory Symptoms and Systemic Immunoregulatory Cytokines in HIV-Positive Individuals

SESSION TITLE: Environmental and Occupational Health SESSION TYPE: Original Investigation Poster PRESENTED ON: Wednesday, November 1, 2017 at 01:30 PM - 02:30 PM PURPOSE: Household air pollution (HAP), an independent risk factor for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), is currently a major global health concern. HAP is especially relevant in Sub-Saharan Africa, where solid biomass use for cooking is widespread. This region also has a large burden of HIV/AIDS, which has emerged as a risk factor for the development of COPD, in particular emphysema. Our overarching hypothesis is that the combination of HAP and HIV exposure will lead to earlier onset and/or to more severe COPD. We studied individuals in Malawi, a country that has among the highest prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the world (10.6% of age 15-49) and documented HAP exposures at levels far greater than WHO’s recommendations (Fullerton et al 2009). We investigated if habitually exposed to HAP (HAP+) and infected with HIV (HIV+), when compared to individuals who are HIV negative (HIV-) and lack habitual exposure to HAP (HAP-), have higher prevalence of respiratory symptoms and if they exhibit alterations in levels of circulating immunomodulatory cytokines. METHODS: Fifty subjects from Malawi with known HIV status were given a survey that recorded their demographics, HAP exposure, and respiratory symptoms/diagnoses. In addition, serum was collected and levels of 41 serum markers were measured using MSD® Multi-Spot assay. RESULTS: Survey analyses showed 46% of subjects reported respiratory diagnoses and/or respiratory symptoms. Most common symptoms were breathlessness and cough, followed by wheezing. Increased sputum production was the lest common symptom--reported by <5% of subjects. We noted a higher prevalence of respiratory diagnoses and/or symptoms in HIV+ subjects (n=20) or those with HAP exposures (n=28), reported by more than 50% of individuals in each group, compared to 14% of those in the HIV− or HAP- groups. Among subjects with HAP+ exposure, HIV+ subjects were more likely to carry a respiratory diagnosis than HIV− subjects (50% vs. 28%). Individuals with dual HIV+ and HAP+ exposures exhibited significant decreases in serum IL-16 levels, which were 44% (p=0.03) lower than those in the HIV- and HAP- group. We also noted a significant decrease in serum IL-2 by 31% (p=0.02) and a trend for decrease in serum IL-10 levels by 42% (p=0.10) in HIV+ subjects with persistent respiratory symptoms compared to all other subjects. CONCLUSIONS: HIV+ or HAP+ exposures, and especially their combination, tend to be associated with higher prevalence of respiratory diagnoses and symptoms such as breathlessness and cough. Those with HAP+ and HIV+ exposures have lower circulating IL-16, a cytokine that inhibits HIV replication and is essential for the immune system homeostasis. Circulating IL-2, which promotes CD4+ cells’ proliferation and survival, and IL-10, an immunoregulatory cytokine that enhances HIV viral clearance were also particularly decreased in HIV+ subjects with respiratory symptoms. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: As low IL-2 or IL-16 levels were found to correlate with worsening COPD (Bowler et al 2013 & D'Armiento et al 2009) and low IL-10 levels correlated with COPD and cigarette smoke-exposed subjects (Zhu et al 2009), future studies should investigate if these cytokines can be utilized as biomarkers for COPD development in this susceptible population. DISCLOSURE: The following authors have nothing to disclose: Charles Kim, Hannah Jary, Kelly Schweitzer, Doug Curran-Everett, Stephen Gordon, Kevin Mortimer, Irina Petrache No Product/Research Disclosure Information

Trans-generational changes and rural-urban inequality in household fuel use and cookstove ventilation in China: A multi-region study of 0.5 million adults.

Disease burden estimates related to household air pollution (HAP) relied on cross-sectional data on cooking fuel, overlooking other important sources (e.g. heating) and temporal-regional variations of exposure in geographically diverse settings. We aimed to examine the trends and variations of for cooking and heating fuel use and ventilation in 500,000 adults recruited from 10 diverse localities of China. At baseline (2004-08) and two subsequent resurveys (2008-14), participants of China Kadoorie Biobank, aged 30-79, reported their past and current fuel use for cooking and heating and the availability of cookstove ventilation. These were compared across regions, time periods, birth cohorts, and socio-demographic factors. During 1968-2014, the proportion of self-reported solid fuel use for cooking or heating decreased by two-thirds (from 84% to 27%), whereas those having complete kitchen ventilation tripled (from 19% to 66%). By 2014, despite a continuing downward trend, many in rural areas still used solid fuels for cooking (48%) and heating (72%), often without adequate ventilation (51%), in contrast to urban residents (all <5%). The large urban-rural inequalities in solid fuel use persisted across multiple generations and also varied by socioeconomic status, especially in rural areas. Despite marked progress in fuel modernization in the last 50 years, substantial rural-urban inequalities remain in the study population, especially those who were older or of lower socioeconomic status. Uptake of cleaner heating fuel and ventilation has been slow. More proactive and targeted strategies are needed to expedite universal access to clean energy for both cooking and heating.

Potential Impacts of Modifiable Behavioral and Environmental Exposures on Reducing Burden of Under-five Mortality Associated with Household Air Pollution in Nepal.

Objectives Household air pollution (HAP) is one of the leading causes of respiratory illness and deaths among young children in low and lower-middle income countries. This study examines for the first time trends in the association between HAP from cooking fuel and under-five mortality and measures the potential impact of interventions to reduce HAP using Nepal Demographic and Health Survey datasets (2001-2011). Methods A total of 17,780 living children across four age-groups (neonatal 0-28 days, post-neonatal 1-11 months, child 12-59 months and under-five 0-59 months) were included and multi-level logistic regression models were used for analyses. Population attributable fractions of key risk factors and potential impact fractions assessing the impact of previous interventions to reduce exposure prevalence were also calculated. Results Use of cooking fuel was associated with total under-five mortality (OR 2.19, 95% CI 1.37-3.51, P = 0.001) in Nepal, with stronger associations evident for sub-group analyses of neonatal mortality (OR 2.67, 95% CI 1.47-4.82, P = 0.001). Higher association was found in rural areas and for households without a separate kitchen using polluting fuel for cooking, and in women who had never breastfed for all age-groups of children. PIF estimates, assuming a 63% of reduction of HAP based on previously published interventions in Nepal, suggested that a burden of 40% of neonatal and 33% of under-five mortality cases associated with an indoor kitchen using polluting fuel could be avoidable. Conclusion Improved infrastructure and behavioral interventions could help reduce the pollution from cooking fuel in the household resulting in further reduction in under-five mortality in Nepal.

A cautionary note on the use of Cook's distance

A cautionary note on the use of Cook's distance

Household air pollution from use of cooking fuel and under-five mortality: The role of breastfeeding status and kitchen location in Pakistan.

Household air pollution (HAP) mainly from cooking fuel is one of the major causes of respiratory illness and deaths among young children in low and middle-income countries like Pakistan. This study investigates for the first time the association between HAP from cooking fuel and under-five mortality using the 2013 Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (PDHS) data. Multi-level logistic regression models were used to examine the association between HAP and under-five mortality in a total of 11,507 living children across four age-groups (neonatal aged 0–28 days, post-neonatal aged 1–11 months, child aged 12–59 months and under-five aged 0–59 months). Use of cooking fuel was weakly associated with total under-five mortality (OR = 1.22, 95%CI = 0.92–1.64, P = 0.170), with stronger associations evident for sub-group analyses of children aged 12–59 months (OR = 1.98, 95%CI = 0.75–5.25, P = 0.169). Strong associations between use of cooking fuel and mortality were evident (ORs >5) in those aged 12–59 months for households without a separate kitchen using polluting fuels, and in children whose mother never breastfed. The results of this study suggest that HAP from cooking fuel is associated with a modest increase in the risk of death among children under five years of age in Pakistan, but particularly in those aged 12–59 months, and those living in poorer socioeconomic conditions. To reduce exposure to cooking fuel which is a preventable determinant of under-five mortality in Pakistan, the challenge remains to promote behavioural interventions such as breastfeeding in infancy period, keeping young children away from the cooking area, and improvements in housing and kitchen design.

Pulmonary Tuberculosis Is Associated With Biomass Fuel Use Among Rural Women in Pakistan: An Age- and Residence-Matched Case-Control Study.

Facility-based, age- and residential area-matched case-control study was conducted in Sindh, Pakistan to determine association between biomass fuel use for cooking and pulmonary tuberculosis (TB). Cases were women with pulmonary TB, and controls were those suffering from other diseases. Current users of biomass fuel were at higher risk of pulmonary TB (adjusted matched odds ratio [mOR] = 3.0; 95% CI = 1.1-4.9) compared with nonusers. In comparison with former biomass users (women not using biomass for >10 years), recent biomass users (women who switched from biomass to nonbiomass ≤10 years ago), and current (lifetime) users were at a higher risk in a dose-response manner (adjusted mOR = 2.8, 95% CI = 0.9-8.2 and adjusted mOR = 3.9, 95% CI = 1.4-10.7, respectively). Population attributable fraction for TB related to biomass fuel use was 40.6% (95% CI = 35.5%-45.7%). This study strengthens the evidence that biomass fuel use for cooking is associated with pulmonary TB and risk increases with duration of exposure.

The effects of genotypes and irradiation doses on haploid embryo induction and plant production in bottle gourd [Lagenaria siceraria(Malign) Stanley

Cultivated Legenaria siceraria (Malign) Stanley is commonly known as the white-flowered gourd. It has been grown annually and it is a monocious, vigorous climber species. The mature fruit is often scooped out and the skin is used as containers, music instrument, decorative purposes or in some cases, fishing floats. Shoots, tendrils and leaves are also cooked and the seeds are removed for oil extraction or for use in cooking. Furthermore, L. siceraria is used as rootstocks conferring the watermelon grafted plant resistance to soil-borne diseases and adverse soil conditions. The objective of this study was to optimize bottle gourd haploid plants. Haploid plants are an invaluable source to rapidly produce new homozygous inbred lines. We analyzed the effect of various pollen irradiation doses (50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175 and 200 Gray gamma rays of 60Co) on the induction of parthenogenetic haploid embryos after pollination with the irradiated pollen in four bottle gourd landraces (Adana, Birecik, Spain and Cyprus). Our results indicate that pollination with irradiated pollens at 50 and 75 Gy had a positive effect on haploid embryo induction. After pollination with irradiated pollens, embryos with different shape were rescued, cultured and converted to intact plants under tissue culture conditions. The genotypes had important effect on induction of haploid embryo by irradiated pollen technique. Seventy five plants from Adana genotype, 10 plants from Birecik genotype, 121 plants from Spain genotype, 141 plants from Cyprus genotype and totally 347 plants were produced from this research.

Assessment of emissions of greenhouse gases and air pollutants in Indonesia and impacts of national policy for elimination of kerosene use in cooking

This study presents an emission inventory (EI) for major anthropogenic sources of Indonesia in 2007 and 2010. The EI was developed using a combination of top-down and bottom-up approaches with comprehensive activity data collected at the provincial/district level to produce spatially and temporally distributed emission of toxic pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHGs). The sources were categorized into: 1) fuel combustion in power plant, 2) industry, 3) transportation, 4) residential and commercial combustion, 5) biomass open burning, and 6) non-combustion agricultural activity and waste disposal. The best estimates of the 2010 national emissions, in Gg, of toxic pollutants were: 1014 SO2; 3323 NOx; 24,849 CO; 4077 NMVOC; 1276 NH3; 2154 PM10; 1728 PM2.5; 246 BC; 718 OC; and GHGs: 540,275 CO2; 3979 CH4 and 180 N2O. During the period from 2007 to 2010, the national emissions increased by 0.7–8.8% (0.23–2.8% per year), varied with species, with the most significant changes obtained for the biomass open burning emissions. For 2010 results, the low and high emission estimates for different species were ranging from −58% to +122% of the corresponding best estimates. The largest range (high uncertainty) was for BC due to the wide range of the limitedly available emission factors. Spatially, higher emission intensity was seen in large urban areas of Java and Sumatra Islands. Temporally, dry months of August–October had higher emissions. During the first 3 years (2007–2010) of implementation, the national policy of elimination of kerosene use in cooking had successfully replaced 4.9 Tg kerosene with 2.6 Tg LPG in 30 designated provinces. The net emission reductions of different species ranged from 48 Mg (SO2) to 7.6 Tg for CO2. The global warming potential weighted emissions from the residential cooking alone, collectively for GHGs and short-lived climate pollutants in 20-yr CO2 eq., would reduce by 2%. More significant reductions in the residential combustion emissions are expected if the solid cooking fuel could be targeted in future fuel conversion programs. The benefits to human health resulted from the emission reduction of toxic pollutants from residential cooking could be substantial and should be assessed in future studies.

Analysis of mechanical properties of agricultural products for development of a multipurpose vegetable cutting machine

The consumption of pre-treated vegetables (including fresh-cut vegetables) that are washed, peeled, and trimmed has been significantly increased because of their easy use for cooking. Vegetable cutting machines have been widely utilized for producing fresh-cut vegetables or agricultural products of different sizes; however, the design standard is not established for specific types of agricultural products. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine mechanical properties (compressive and shear forces) of targeted agricultural products (radish, carrot, squash, cucumber, shiitake mushroom, and sweet potato) for developing a multipurpose vegetable cutting machine. According to ASAE standard (s368.3), compressive and shear forces of targeted agricultural products were measured by using a custom built UTM (universal testing machine). Shape type of samples and speed ranges (5 - 15 mm/min) of loading rate on bioyield and shear points varied depending on the targeted agricultural product. The range of averaged bioyield points of targeted agricultural products were between 7.89 and 146.98 N. On the other hand, their averaged shear points ranged from 22.50 to 53.47 N. Results clearly showed that the bioyield and shear points of targeted agricultural products were thoroughly affected by their components. As measuring compressive and shear forces of a variety of agricultural products, it will be feasible to calculate blade cutting force for designing multipurpose vegetable cutting machine.

Household Air Pollution and Cardiovascular Disease Risk: Results from the Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiological Study

Introduction: An estimated 2.9 million deaths in 2013 were attributable to exposure to household air pollution (HAP). The majority (52%) of this burden is from cardiovascular disease (CVD), yet to date no prospective study has examined HAP and CVD incidence. Here we investigate the association between HAP and CVD within the Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiology (PURE) cohort. Methods: We examined 26 centers in the PURE study that reported greater than 10% solid fuel use for cooking, resulting in 97,350 participants with CVD follow-up across 10 countries (Bangladesh, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, India, Pakistan, South Africa, and Zimbabwe). Average follow-up in the cohort was 4.1 years, yielding 1,073 myocardial infarctions (MI), 878 strokes, 2,195 severe CVD events, 1,080 fatal CVD events, and 2,782 total deaths. We ran Cox-proportional hazards models, controlling for the INTERHEART risk score (a validated score for existing CVD risk-factors), urban/rural status, education, outdoor PM2.5, CVD medication use, country, and center. Results: We observed increases in risk of all-cause mortality (HR 1.16; 95% CI: 1.02-1.32) for individuals living in households with solid fuel use for cooking compared to electricity or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Increases (not statistically significant) in the risk of MI (7-20%), Stroke (9-46%) and Severe CVD (8-23%) were observed in models including all countries and in China/India models. The largest risks were observed in India. There was heterogeneity in risk estimates across study centers, although meta-analysis of these results were similar to overall models. Conclusions: In this large, multi-country prospective cohort we observed increases in all-cause mortality and CVD incidence for individuals living in households using solid fuel for cooking compared to electricity or LPG. Although effect sizes were modest, these results contribute the first direct evidence of an association between HAP and CVD incidence.