Use Of Bricks Research Articles

Ernő Foerk’s Sacred Buildings

Abstract The article reviews Ernő Foerk’s career through the perspective of his sacred buildings. Ernő Foerk’s oeuvre accounts for a significant proportion of these works. Most of his accomplished churches were made in a Historicist style with a Latin-cross-shaped plan and facade tower. His designs which remained on paper, however, show a more diverse picture from both spatial and stylistic aspect. A number of plans were marked together with Gyula Petrovácz, however, we should presume Foerk had a more significant role in the artistic formation. In addition to the general historicist language, his works also had unique stylistic features, which were mainly related to the design of towers’ proportions, windows, pediments and spires, and to the use of bricks in facade design.

Experimental work for mechanical properties of brick and masonry panel

The use of Masonry panels in building construction has been popular in most of the parts of the world. However, the use of bricks and brick masonry in different parts of the world being of different nature in terms of quality, size, workmanship of construction, etc. It is yet a topic of interest to researchers to identify the mechanical properties, like Young’s modulus of elasticity and shear modulus of brick masonry panels. It is essential to know the characteristic of brick masonry panels in order to evaluate the responses of masonry walls for any kind of loading. Individual bricks do possess better compressive capacity as compared to masonry walls. Masonry walls are bound together with either mud mortar or by cement sand mortars of various mixes as per the strength requirements. The essential strength properties in engineering are basically the compressive strength and the modulus of elasticity. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard is the most popular for testing bricks and brick masonry for these properties so far. Here, the study has been concentrated in finding the compressive strength of brick, mortar and brick masonry. The study is also done for Young’s modulus of elasticity of brick as well as that of masonry wall. Similarly, the study is extended to find the modulus of rigidity of brick masonry panel. The study is done experimentally for the samples that are generally used in Kathmandu, Nepal. The samples include bricks, cement and sand particularly available in Kathmandu region.

Potential use of brick waste as alternate concrete-making materials: A review

Abstract Solid waste produced from construction and demolition activities amount to several million tons globally, and one of the prominent wastes is brick waste. In recent years, there have been increasing number of researches carried out on recycling brick wastes to produce a more eco-friendly concrete. This review summarizes the usage of brick waste as potential partial cement and aggregate replacement materials whereby the performance in terms of the mechanical strengths and some durability-related properties of the concrete were discussed. It was found that the most feasible usage of recycled brick is in the form of brick dust, whereby up to 20% cement replacement could enhance the strength and some durability properties of the concrete due to the potential pozzolanic reactivity of the brick dust particles. On the other hand, the inclusion of recycled brick as aggregate does not give profound improvement of the properties of concrete as it is governed by the inherent porous nature of the aggregate. Hence, the use of recycled brick as partial aggregate substitute should be confined to low volume replacement levels and when environmental consideration necessitates its usage.

San Isidoro Schools in Padul, Granada, Spain

The small and unique building of “Las Escuelas de San Isidoro”, erected in Padul at the beginning of the 20th century, is a clear example of the new architectural type of the innovative educational model created in Granada by Father Manjón. That model supposed a radical change for the methods of the Spanish teaching and it was the origin of the current educational system. Andrés Manjón y Manjón (1846-1923), priest, jurist and pedagogue, broke with traditional pedagogy and revolutionized the old-fashion model of education that was in vogue until that moment and universalized and socialized education. That pioneer model promoted an education based on aptitudes and faculties, using games and practice, addressed to all ages and social classes, in conjunction with nature. Outdoor education should be used wherever possible. In a historical context of profound social changes, this typology was the answer to the new educational needs using a “spearing” architectural language based on a constructive system that was both efficient and economic: Spanish Regionalism. It was a new style from the first third of the 20th century that recreated historical forms. It was far from the breakthrough modern movement that, at that time, it took place in central Europe. However, the model of the Manjonian School runs away from historicist models and remains in the simplicity of brick-faced walls or brick-wrapping walls and masonry drawers, with no more decorative concession that window lintels, jambs and sill jut out. The façades highlight made with simple semicircular arches and some glazed ceramics. Wooden rounded slabs supported on walls and simple wooden cover structures. The steel was barely used in metal structural slabs and brick, and even less on the roof. Architects like Francisco Jiménez Arévalo, Juan Montserrat Pons or Fernando Wilhelmi Manzano will be the architects of this type of architecture that has as a mark of identity the massive use of brick in load walls; and as a way to show the facade creating a modest appearance image but of a certain nobility. Wilhelmi projected the Schools of Padul not belonging to the Manjonian type but following a similar way. Conclusion: The knowledge of this architectural typology is basic to protect these simple buildings for educational use, reinforcing the attachment and identity of the citizens of Padul. For them it symbolizes a time and its economic and social context. Through the dissemination in this municipality of the Endof- Grade Projects of the students of the School of Building of the University of Granada related to this building, the following objectives were achieved: revaluing, strengthening and fostering the sense of identity of a village towards one of its most peculiar buildings, The Schools where many of them began their education. Through its study, the process of preserving its values has begun, and with knowledge, are fully assumed contributing to the respect and conservation of this inherited heritage.

Impact of using lightweight eco-bricks as enclosures for individual houses of one story on zones of high seismicity

Fired clay bricks are widely developed by focusing on the use of several wastes with the aim of obtaining lightweight materials. Despite research having provided positives experiences, most of these showed an important reduction of compression strength. This issue must be highlighted in particular, when seismic areas are considered. However, despite compression strength decreases in some cases the energy that can be absorbed by the brick might be increased. Hence, this paper tests and shows physical and mechanical properties of newly fired clays made by adding different percentages of sawdust. Results are used for calculating the response of an individual one-story house to medium intensity earthquakes. It is concluded that the use of bricks, with up to 5% sawdust added, is an ecological way for recycling these agro-wastes, while its behaviour against earthquakes performs better than other solutions, such as common perforated bricks.

Studying the Brickwork of Islamic Mosques as Architectural Decorations

Bricks are local materials and efficient architecture in Iran. Bricks are used in buildings and for decoration. Brickwork is one of the ways of decoration in architecture which is done with simple and sharp tools. Brickwork of Iranian architecture was used in the Achaemenian period and it flourished and its decorative applications reached its peak in the Islamic period, especially in mosques of the Seljuk period. The mosque has been raised in the early days of Islam as a center of idea exchanges and a place of reflection, so that the prevailing architecture came into existence, based on the ideas and social views in the Islamic world. At the beginning, the exterior architecture looked very simple and its exterior was not very distinct from other architectures. But with the passage of time and the arrival of mosques in Iran, Iranian architectures’ ideas were inspired by the Islamic world and the mosque had a great impact on the sub-structure, and a diverse array of elements were added to it and adapted with Iranian and Islamic philosophy, which identifying these elements are among factors discussed and analyzed in these structures. This kind of decoration, continued until the beginning of the second Pahlavi period and then with the mainstream use of cement, iron, aluminium and new materials, the use of bricks was reduced and the art of brickwork declined. Studying the different species of brickwork and its relationship with its decorative features and applications, can be effective in its rehabilitation and re-prosperity.

Development of lightweight ceramic construction materials based on fly ash

This study aims to demonstrate the suitability of using lightweight ceramics as a construction material in preference to autoclaved aerated concrete and pumice blocks or the more commonly used brick. For construction applications, ceramics show good stability under fatigue loadings and severe environmental conditions and are an economical alternative to other materials. Although bricks have better mechanical properties than the new generation construction materials, thermal insulation properties of brick are much lower. Hence, the use of bricks as a fired construction materials is becoming increasingly unfavorable; as a result, brick manufacturers are losing their market share day-by-day. This study aims to develop an alternative fired lightweight, ceramic construction material with fly ash with relatively better mechanical and thermal insulation properties.

ДАТИРОВКА ЗДАНИЙ ИСТОРИЧЕСКОЙ ЗАСТРОЙКИ ПО ХАРАКТЕРНЫМ ПРИЗНАКАМ СТРОИТЕЛЬНЫХ МАТЕРИ

During reconstruction and scientific restoration of historical buildings of Moscow there often rises a question on the history of house ownership and dating of its first construction and further reconstructions. The article considers the methods of determining the age of buildings according to some specific features of brickwork and metal structures. It is proposed to use such characteristics as brickwork type, processing technique of mortar seams, size of bricks and a brand on them as dating marks when inspecting buildings. Brands on bricks have been traced since middle 17th when they were of animalistic character, later they consisted of one letter. Since the beginning of the 17th brands consisted of two or three letters meaning the initials of a factory owner. In the end of the 19th there appeared signs with full surnames of owners. Letter seals were usually placed on bonders and seals with surnames, later also with factory names, were situated on stretchers and sometimes on bed of bricks. It is recommended to analyze dating of bricks using reference books on dating back of the brands to historical periods. At the same time one should take into account the possibility of secondary use of bricks in the construction. The main dating feature of metal structures is a trade mark. Attribution of marks with abbreviations of factories and initials of owners needs addressing to the history of plants and sometimes to biographic information of the owners. The authors present materials on steams on bricks and metal details educed during field studies of historical buildings of Moscow. The authors underline the necessity to use complex approach in case of certain age of a building, which takes into account all the dating features of structures.

Sewage sludge ash characteristics and potential for use in bricks, tiles and glass ceramics.

The characteristics of sewage sludge ash (SSA) and its use in ceramic applications pertaining to bricks, tiles and glass ceramics have been assessed using the globally published literature in the English medium. It is shown that SSA possesses similar chemical characteristics to established ceramic materials and under heat treatment achieves the targeted densification, strength increases and absorption reductions. In brick and tile applications, technical requirements relating to strength, absorption and durability are achievable, with merely manageable performance reductions with SSA as a partial clay replacement. Fluxing properties of SSA facilitate lower firing temperatures during ceramics production, although reductions in mix plasticity leads to higher forming water requirements. SSA glass ceramics attained strengths in excess of natural materials such as granite and marble and displayed strong durability properties. The thermal treatment and nature of ceramic products also effectively restricted heavy metal leaching to low levels. Case studies, predominantly in bricks applications, reinforce confidence in the material with suitable technical performances achieved in practical conditions.

A practical proposal for solving the world’s cigarette butt problem: Recycling in fired clay bricks

The disposal and littering of cigarette butts (CBs) is a serious environmental problem. Trillions of cigarettes are produced every year worldwide, resulting in millions of tonnes of toxic waste being dumped into the environment in the form of cigarette butts. As CBs have poor biodegradability, it can take many years for them to break down. This paper reviews and presents some of the results of a study on the recycling of CBs into fired clay bricks. Bricks with 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10% CB content by weight were manufactured and tested, and then compared against control clay bricks with 0% CB content. The results showed that the dry density decreased by up to 30% and the compressive strength decreased by 88% in bricks with 10% CBs. The calculated compressive strength of bricks with 1% CBs was determined to be 19.53Mpa. To investigate the effect of mixing time, bricks with 7.5% CB content were manufactured with different mixing times of 5, 10, and 15min. To test the effect of heating time on the properties of CB bricks, the heating rate used during manufacturing was changed to 0.7, 2, 5, and 10°Cmin−1. Bricks with 0% and 5% CB content were fired with these heating rates. Leachate tests were carried out for bricks with 0%, 2.5%, 5%, and 10% CB content. The emissions released during firing were tested for bricks with 0% and 5% CB content using heating rates of 0.7, 2, 5, and 10°Cmin−1. The gases tested were carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), chlorine (Cl2), nitrogen oxide (NO), and hydrogen cyanide (HCN). Finally, estimations were made for the energy that could be saved by firing bricks incorporating CBs. Calculations showed that up to 58% of the firing energy could potentially be saved. Bricks were shown to be a viable solution for the disposal of CBs. They can reduce contamination caused by cigarette butts and provide a masonry construction material that can be either loadbearing or non-loadbearing, depending on the quantity of CBs incorporated. This paper proposes the use of bricks with 1% CB content throughout the brick-manufacturing industry. If bricks contained as little as 1% CB content, they would still provide a solution for the issue of CB recycling while maintaining properties very similar to those of a non-CB brick. Our calculations show that, theoretically, only 2.5% of the world’s annual brick production is necessary to completely offset the worldwide, annual cigarette production.

Physical and Mechanical Properties of Compressed Earth Brick (CEB) Containing Sugarcane Bagasse Ash

The use of brick in construction is commonly used, especially in the construction of buildings and infrastructure. Various studies have been conducted to produce methods that can increase the strength of brick at the same time can reduce the cost of manufacturing bricks. In order to reduce cost of manufacturing, one of the solution applied was by using waste as part of bricks production materials. In this study, sugarcane bagasse (SuCaB) ash was used as a part of compressed earth brick (CEB) by replacing the quantity of cement for SuCaB ash. The study focused on the physical and mechanical properties of CEB containing SuCaB and the optimum percentage of SuCaB ash as partial cement replacement in CEB. There are 4 types of percentages used; 0%, 20%, 25% and 30% from cement content. All mixed use the same water content of 30% of cement content by weight and the ratio for cement: laterite soil used was 1: 6. A total of 72 specimen with size of 100mm x 50mm x 40mm was produced. The test conducted were Initial Rate Absorption Test (IRA), Density Test, Dimensions Test, Compression Test and Water Absorption Test. From the experimental results, the optimum SuCaB ash percentage as cement replacement in CEB was 20%. It recorded the highest compressive strength of 16.23 MPa at 28 days while for the Initial Rate Absorption test, it lies within the range specified. The density of CEB containing 20% of SuCaB shows slightly lower value where it decreased for about 0.4% from the control specimen. From this study, it can be concluded that waste materials such as sugarcane bagasse can be used as part of construction materials. However, further study needs to be conducted such as on the energy consumption, chemical properties and others to enhance the knowledge on this area before it can be applied into the brick production.

Development of Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer Lightweight Bricks Using Foaming Agent - A Review

Bricks are widely used as a construction and building material due to its properties. Recent years have seen a great development in new types of inorganic cementitious binders called ‘‘geopolymeric cement’’ around the world. This prompted its use in bricks, which improves the greenness of ordinary bricks. The development of fly ash-based geopolymer lightweight bricks is relatively new in the field of construction materials. This paper reviews the uses of fly ash as a raw materials and addition of foaming agent to the geopolymeric mixture to produce lightweight bricks. The effects on their physical and mechanical properties have been discussed. Most manufactured bricks with incorporation of foaming agent have shown positive effects by producing lightweight bricks, increased porosity and improved the thermal conductivities of fly ash-based geopolymer bricks. However, less of performances in number of cases in terms of mechanical properties were also demonstrated.

Creative Economic Building Components For Low-Income Housing

When observing Egypts method of expansion, one can identify a clear language and distinctive pattern of urban development. The years following 1952, marked by the privatization of agricultural land and the population boom, gave rise to a soon to be urban catastrophe. In order to fulfil the needs of the growing population, buildings were sprouting out everywhere, causing agricultural lands to disappear under a jungle of red bricks, erasing the lines between urban and rural. This phenomenon of informal expansion has spread across the country composing what is commonly known as Ashwa'eeyat or informal settlements. In Egypt, these can be identified by a unified method of construction using concrete skeleton structures of concrete slabs and beams along with plain red brick walls; an appearance that does not reflect nor shed light on the Egyptian culture or environmental requirements. The use of bricks and concrete is due to the fact that this construction method is the most commonly used and feasible type of construction; the material is available, the workmanship, even though it is not the most economic method. Egypt is a developing country that possesses numerous resources, being both tangible and intangible ones. The aim of this paper is to research and determine the possibility of creating different elements of construction utilizing available resources and recycling waste material. These elements would be economic and reflective of the Egyptian culture while maintaining the necessary environmental and physical safety requirements sought in residential buildings.

The change in selected properties of ceramic materials obtained from ceramic brick treated by the sulphate and chloride ions

Long-term use of bricks in different conditions, particularly in the contact with moisture, results in the accumulation of various substances and compounds, which over time causes a change of the performance in the negative direction. Therefore, the studies have been undertaken, which the goal was to determine the effect of the presence of the sulphate and chloride ions on the compressive strength and the surface hardness of the ceramic bricks. The studies have been conducted on the samples cut out from the ceramic bricks, that have been exposed to the corrosive solution of magnesium sulphate, sodium chloride and a solution containing both of these salts, simultaneously. The obtained results indicate that the presence of these ions in the body of ceramic bricks provokes a change of the surface hardness and the compressive strength.

Evaluating Sustainability of Face Bricks for Road and Airfield Pavements

The feasibility of using face bricks as an alternative to concrete or asphalt paving was evaluated for lightweight and heavyweight vehicle traffic. Paving materials and equipment can be scarce in expeditionary environments, so the use of bricks recycled from existing infrastructure may provide a local resource for constructing pavements suitable for meeting the military's mission requirements. The field testing documented in this paper follows a laboratory study in which a series of strength and characterization tests were conducted on selected face bricks and brick pavers. The success of the laboratory testing led to the full-scale field evaluation of the face and paver bricks trafficked with a commercial dump truck load of approximately 24.5 t and then trafficked with a 20.4 t single-wheel C-17 aircraft load cart. The field testing indicated brick-paved roads constructed with a moderately high-strength base are capable of sustaining more than 10 000 passes of truck traffic without failure. The same brick-paved roads were not capable of withstanding C-17 aircraft traffic. Further results from the evaluation are presented and include material characterization test data, rut depth measurements, wheel path and cross-section profile measurements, instrumentation response data, and forensic assessments.

The stone materials of the historical architecture of Tuscany, Italy

Abstract The paper presents an overview of the principal stone materials used in the historical architecture of Tuscany, a region of central Italy characterized by a great variety of landscapes. The large number of these materials reflects the complex geology of the region, where each village and town has a unique identity conferred by the architecture and typical colours of the construction materials. The urban areas that have developed in the foothills of the Apennines are, characterized by the use of sandstone, while the towns and villages of central-southern Tuscany are generally more heterogeneous, with an abundant use of bricks and travertine. The information presented is focused on the use of the stone materials during the different epochs, their geopetrographical characteristics and their most common durability problems.

Scientific Studies of Candi Pengkalan Bujang (Site 19) Ancient Bricks: Knowledge of Old Kedah Community's in Usage of Local Raw Materials

The aim of this study is to determine whether the ancient bricks from Candi Pengkalan Bujang (Site 19) are made from local raw material or not. Candi Pengkalan Bujang (Site 19) is one of the temple sites that used bricks as the main construction material in addition to the usage of pillar bases made from granite stones and roof that are believed to have been made from wood and palm leafs. Relative dating proposed that this site was built between the 12 th and 13 century AD. The architecture of the temple also indicates there was evolution toward the use of bricks that were smaller and of the same size as well as temple construction that revealed the lotus (padma) and upaphita structures. This study focuses on the material composition analysis of ancient bricks that were used to produce this temple of which the main purpose is to see whether the raw materials used to produce these bricks utilized local raw materials. Two analysis techniques were used, namely the X-Ray Fluorescence technique (XRF) and the X-Ray Diffraction technique (XRD) in determining the content of the major and trace elements as well as the mineral content in the ancient bricks. The findings of this study show that the major minerals found in the ancient bricks of the Candi Pengkalan Bujang (Site 19) are quartz, muscovite and microcline while other minerals that exist are leucite, mullite and geothite. The mineral content and physical observation of the bricks indicate that the open firing technique was used in producing these bricks. The major and trace element content also indicates that these bricks were produced from the same source and it is proposed that local raw materials were used in the production of the bricks. The involvement of the local community in producing the bricks should not be refuted, proving the Knowledge Transformation of the local community in Bujang Valley which had already started since the 4 th century.

Environmental constraints on oviposition of aquatic invertebrates with contrasting life cycles in two human‐modified streams

Summary Many streams today have modified channels, substratum composition, flows and temperature regimes. Understanding how these potential stressors affect key processes governing populations is crucial towards counteracting species decline and loss. For aquatic organisms with complex life cycles that include a terrestrial adult stage, successful reproduction involving a transition from the terrestrial to aquatic environment for oviposition can be an important constraint. Our main goal was to test for the effects of local stream degradation on egg mass densities of macroinvertebrates with different requirements for oviposition habitat. We experimentally manipulated oviposition substrate availability in two Swiss gravel‐bed rivers by adding bricks to stream beds of channelised, restored and near natural reaches differing in their depth profile and availability of large rocks. We followed oviposition on bricks and natural rocks between May and October 2008 and quantified egg mass densities of two aquatic insects with a terrestrial stage (Baetis spp. and Hydropsyche spp.) and an entirely aquatic leech Erpobdella octoculata. Individual and interactive effects of mean water depth fluctuations, depth variability, frequency of large rocks and temperature on egg mass densities were evaluated using a model selection approach. Response to our manipulation in terms of relative use of bricks for oviposition was strongest in the two insect taxa, whose egg mass densities responded to the presence of large substrata in study reaches. We also found evidence for a weak water level effect on egg mass densities of Baetis, a mayfly that uses protruding rocks for oviposition, in contrast to Hydropsyche, which apparently is capable of diving. While no clear response to our manipulation was found in Erpobdella octoculata, its overall cocoon densities were influenced by the variability of depth profile and increased in reaches with lower streambed heterogeneity. Our results suggest that stream degradation has high potential to constrain reproduction of many species, in particular those with complex life cycles such as aquatic insects. Investigation in modified riverscapes of the specific effects of different constraints to recruitment processes is a prerequisite for successful management and conservation.

Performance Evaluation of Brick Chips as Coarse Aggregate on the Properties of Bituminous Mixes

In Bangladesh there is large area where stone aggregates are not available in the vicinity of road construction. Due to excessive cost on transportation of stone aggregates, road construction becomes expensive. This leads to search of alternative materials for road construction in place of stone aggregate. The locally available over burnt brick-bats are the best alternative material against stone aggregates in bituminous mixes. The demand of natural stone aggregates can be reduced by fresh brick and waste brick from brick-kiln and demolished building respectively. But a very few researches have been carried out to investigate their suitability and limited information's is available about their performances. Thus, this paper describes the technical feasibility on application of the brick aggregates in road construction as an alternative against natural aggregate. An experimental investigation is carried out to evaluate the possible application of fresh brick and waste brick as coarse aggregate in bituminous concrete pavement design and to find out its design characteristics. The research program concentrated on the existing practices relating to use of bricks in road construction, use of crushed bricks in substitution of whole bricks and replacement of stone aggregate with crushed brick wherever economically feasible. The strength properties of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and Marshall Design properties of bituminous mixes were performed according to the test procedure specified by AASHTO. Dense bituminous mixes using compacted brick aggregate with 50 blows is found a feasible option from the standpoint of stability, stiffness, deformations and voids characteristics.

The development process for a continuous acetone–butanol–ethanol (ABE) fermentation by immobilized Clostridium acetobutylicum

The low butanol productivity impedes acetone–butanol–ethanol (ABE) commercial production using Clostridium acetobutylicum. A continuous operation with cell immobilization could enhance efficiency and in turn, economic competitiveness. Among the three materials investigated in this study, bricks were determined to be the most suitable carrier for ABE fermentation. An immobilization ratio of 20% (the proportion of brick to the working volume) and a brick size of 0.15–2.4 mm were established as the most appropriate immobilization condition. After 6 cycles of repeated immobilized batch operation, the average butanol productivity amounted to 0.17 g/l/h. The continuous operation with cell immobilization resulted in a steady butanol production of 8.71 ± 0.69 g/l with an average productivity of 0.48 g/l/h for over 300 h, with a dilution rate of 0.054/h. However, when the dilution rate was increased to 0.108/h, butanol production decreased to 6.95 ± 0.53 g/l while productivity increased to 0.71 g/l/h. These results indicate that a high dilution rate leads to a low butanol concentration, but creates high levels of butanol productivity. Both the simplicity of the immobilization process and the economic benefits derived from the reduction in time and labor makes the use of bricks as carriers a very attractive option.