Urine Of Pregnant Women Research Articles

Dynamics of steroid estrogen daily concentrations in hospital effluent and connected waste water treatment plant

Hospital effluent and connected waste water treatment plant (WWTP) influent and effluent were sampled daily to determine the levels and inter-day variations of three naturally occurring steroid estrogens: estrone, 17β-estradiol, estriol, and synthetic 17α-ethinylestradiol. After solid phase extraction, interferences were removed with a silica gel clean-up step and the samples analysed using gas chromatography with mass selective detection (GC-MSD). The determined inter-day concentrations in hospital effluent were between 8.6 to 31.3 ng L(-1) for estrone, <LOD (limit of detection) to 4.2 ng L(-1) for 17β-estradiol and 6.4 to 385.5 ng L(-1) for estriol. In the WWTP influent concentrations were 18.9 to 49.7 ng L(-1) for estrone, 2.4 to 12.7 ng L(-1), for 17β-estradiol and <LOQ (limit of quantitation) to 63.9 ng L(-1) for estriol. Reduced levels were found in the WWTP effluent: <7.1 ng L(-1) for estrone, <LOQ for 17β-estradiol and <5.2 ng L(-1) for estriol. 17α-ethinylestradiol was detected in only one influent sample. Calculated estradiol equivalents (EEQ) were 33.4, 22.4, 1.7 ng (EEQ) L(-1) in the hospital effluent, WWTP influent and WWTP effluent, respectively. Interestingly, the estrone: 17β-estradiol:estriol ratio in the hospital effluent (1:0.1:9.4) is comparable to that found in the urine of pregnant women (1:0.3:20) indicating the most likely source of steroid estrogens. In WWTP influent the ratio was similar to that found in the non-pregnant population. Our result recognise estriol as being one of the most important steroid estrogens, accounting for up to 92% of the total EEQ present in hospital samples and 37% and 46% in WWTP influent and effluent samples, respectively. The study reveals how concentrations of steroid estrogens vary on a daily basis and concludes that careful sampling strategies must be adopted when making a risk assessment. In addition, the low potency steroid estrogens that contribute towards overall estrogenicity of the sample, e.g. estriol, should be incorporated into environmental monitoring programs.

Prenatal and Postnatal Exposure to Phthalates and the Relation to Steroid Hormone and Gender Role Behavior in Children

PP-31-092 Background/Aims: Phthalates exposure was found associated with decreased anogenital index in male newborns and reduced masculine play boys. It is hypothesized that sex hormone might be altered and gender role behavior changed in relation to phthalates exposure. Methods: We investigate the relation of steroid hormones and pre-school activities inventory to phthalate metabolites in pregnant women and their children in a perspective cohort during 2001–2009 in central Taiwan. In all, 11 phthalate metabolites representing the exposure to 5 commonly used phthalates (Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate [DEHP], DiBP, DnBP, BP, and DiNP) were measured in urine, serum, and human milk by fully automated LC-LC/MS-MS-system. Steroid hormones were analyzed in maternal and children serum using radioimmunoassay. Results: DEHP metabolite levels in pregnant women urine were significantly correlated with their corresponding cord blood. Phthalate exposure was associated with decreased testosterone (TT) concentrations at the years of 0 (ie, cord cx-MiNP and cord TT: spearman correlation r = −0.49, P < 0.05, respectively). Postnatal exposure to DEHP was associated with decreased TT and pre-school activities inventory scores in girls at the age of 5 years, indicating stereotyped feminine toys and activities, with adjustment for gender, education of the major caretaker, and elder brother or sisters. Conclusion: It is firstly reported that TT levels decreased with increasing phthalates exposure consistently in the young children at the ages of 0, 2, and 5 years. Transplacental exposure of phthalates and effect of steroid hormones are established. The feminine role might associate partly with the decreased TT. Postnatal exposure to phthalates is also important for the changes in hormone and behavior.

Excretion of amine nitrogen and ammonia in urine of pregnant women with type 1 diabetes mellitus

Aim. To study excretion of amine nitrogen and ammonia in urine of pregnant women with type 1 diabetes mellitus depending on gestational ageand albuminuria level. Materials and methods. A total of 60 pregnant women with type 1 diabetes mellitus were examined. Proximal and distal tubular function was estimatedfrom daily excretion of amine nitrogen and ammonia respectively. Results. Daily excretion of amine nitrogen and ammonia in urine of pregnant women with type 1 diabetes mellitus was lower than in healthycontrols in the 2nd trimester regardless of albuminuria and in the 3rd trimester in patients with microalbuminuria (MAU) and proteinuria (PU).Ammonia excretion was twice lower than normal in the 2nd trimester in women with MAU and PU, and in the 3rd trimester in patients with PU.Healthy pregnant women showed significant correlation between ammonia and amine nitrogen excretion throughout pregnancy (r?0.833,p

Phthalate exposure in pregnant women and their children in central Taiwan

Phthalate exposure was found to be associated with endocrine disruption, respiratory effects, reproductive and developmental toxicity. The intensive use of plastics may be increasing the exposure to phthalates in Taiwanese population, particularly for young children. We studied phthalate metabolites in pregnant women and their newborns in a prospective cohort from a medical center in Central Taiwan. One hundred maternal urine samples and 30 paired cord blood and milk samples were randomly selected from all of participants (430 pregnant women). Eleven phthalate metabolites (MEHP, 5OH-MEHP, 2cx-MEHP, 5cx-MEPP, 5oxo-MEHP, MiBP, MnBP, MBzP, OH-MiNP, oxo-MiNP, and cx-MiNP) representing the exposure to five commonly used phthalates (DEHP, di-isobutyl phthalate (DiBP), DnBP, BBP, DiNP) were measured in urine of pregnant women, cord serum and breast milk after delivery, and in urine of their children. Exposure was estimated with excretion factors and correlation among metabolites of the same parent compound. Thirty and 59 urinary samples from 2 and 5 years-old children were randomly selected from 185 children successfully followed. Total urinary phthalate metabolite concentration (geometric mean, μg L −1) was found to be higher in 2-years-olds (398.6) and 5-years-olds (333.7) than pregnant women (205.2). Metabolites in urine are mainly from DEHP. The proportion of DiNP metabolites was higher in children urine (4.39 and 8.31%, ages 2 and 5) than in adults (0.83%) ( p < 0.01). Compared to urinary levels, phthalate metabolite levels are low in cord blood (37.45) and milk (14.90). DEHP metabolite levels in women’s urine and their corresponding cord blood are significantly correlated. Compared to other populations in the world, DEHP derived metabolites in maternal urine were higher, while phthalate metabolite levels in milk and cord blood were similar. The level of phthalate metabolites in milk and cord blood were comparable to those found in other populations. Further studies of health effects related to DEHP and DiNP exposure are necessary for the children.

Evaluation of a urinary test as a diagnostic tool of a nonprogressive pregnancy

To evaluate the performance of a one-step test detecting intact hCG and free β-hCG isoforms in the urine of pregnant women to diagnose an abnormal pregnancy. Prospective study. Emergency gynecology departments in teaching hospitals. Five hundred twenty-six patients were enrolled, 272 who were not pregnant and 254 who were pregnant. Semiquantitative determination of intact urinary hCG of supposedly not pregnant and pregnant women with vaginal bleeding and/or vaginal pain between 5 and 8 weeks of amenorrhea. The sensitivity and specificity of the urine test for diagnosing nonpregnancy were, respectively, 100% (252/252) and 100% (272/272). The sensitivity and specificity of the urine test for diagnosing ectopic pregnancy (EP) were, respectively, 97% (32/33) and 83% (142/171). The negative predictive value is 99.3% (142/143). The sensitivity and specificity or the urine test for diagnosing miscarriage were, respectively, 89.6% (43/48) and 83% (142/171). The negative predictive value is 96.6% (142/147). Abnormal pregnancy, such as an EP or a miscarriage, can be rapidly detected with the one-step test for intact hCG and free β-hCG isoforms. If ultrasound cannot confirm the localization and/or evolution of a pregnancy, using this test reduces medical supervision and repeated quantification of hCG.

The dissemination of CMV in urine of different group from Guangxi and the relationship between CMV infection and renal disease

To detect Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) DNA in urine samples from the following groups: pregnant women, sick newborns, hospitalized nephropathy patients, renal transplant recipients and normal population. Preliminarily study the relationship of HCMV infection and renal disease. To detect HCMV DNA in morning urine samples by Real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR (FQ-PCR). The positive rates of HCMV DNA in the urine of pregnant women,sick newborns, hospitalized nephropathy patients, renal transplant recipients and normal population are 8.18%, 3.45%, 18.54%, 25.42%, 0.56%. The infection rates of HCMV in the urine of pregnant women and sick newborns are very high in Guangxi, it should take serious measures to prevent and control the situation. HCMV probably participate in the injury of kidney, and worsen the disease. It should be one of the causes of renal disease.

Determination of Estriol Levels in the Urine of Pregnant Women with Estrotec Kit and its Clinical Application

ABSTRACT Among various fetal and placenta/ function tests, the determination of estriol levels in the urine is an indispensable one. In the study presented herein, the basic and clinical aspects of the ESTROTEC kit method for determining estriol levels in the urine of pregnant women which utilizes the HAIR were examined. Estriol levels determined by the use of this kit were very closely correlated with the levels determined by the chemical assay utilizing Amberlite XAD-2, while the kit is simple in procedure, does not need any special laboratory equipment and apparatus, and yields its result in a short time. For these reasons, it is of high clinical value as a prospective method for large scale screening of fetal and placenta/ functions. In order to judge with estriol levels fug/ml) in the urine specimens collect randomly at single micturition that fetal placental functions are within normal range, it will be necessary that the levels remain not lower than 16 ugjml (positive reaction in 160 times dilution of urine) in the 37th week of pregnancy and the stage beyond it. Taking into account the fact that there is a limit of estriol levels determined by this method such as an erroneous reading of the reaction in one test tube yields a considerably large error in terms of estriol level, it is necessary to observe the pattern of the levels in the course that follows, and considering that the cases with estriol levels of lower than 16 ugjml in the urine specimens collected randomly at single micturition are in fetal and placental hypofunction, it is important to perform fetal and placental function tests in further detail.

Abstract LB-81: Purification and characterization of a human urinary compound with potent anticancer activity

Abstract Historically, the urine, considered as a blood filtrate has been recognized as a source of medicinal products and important constituents of widely used drugs. However, various molecules in human urine such as growth factors, hormones, and their metabolites have not yet been thoroughly characterized. A group of low molecular weight compounds named HIP's (HCG-like Inhibitory Proteins), was discovered in our laboratories while investigating the hormonal regulation of a skin cancer, Kaposi's sarcoma (KS). Following extraction from the urine of pregnant women, HIP was found to inhibit the growth and kill KS cancer cells by apoptosis both in vitro and in vivo. Initial results following intralesional injection with HIP, revealed a marked reduction in the number of neoplastic cells in the tumor. We are presently testing this product in clinical trials on KS patients in a double blind placebo controlled study. Preliminary results reveal HIP to be safe and well tolerated with no adverse or unexpected reactions. More recently, two other tumors types were demonstrated to be sensitive to HIP and are under further investigation. Following the use of gene microarrays and RT-PCR, the principal target genes for HIP were identified as belonging to a growth factor receptor family. Further purification and biochemical characterization is underway using proteomics and NMR spectroscopy. Overall, the present studies further establish HIP as a urinary compound with potent anti-cancer activity. Citation Format: {Authors}. {Abstract title} [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 101st Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2010 Apr 17-21; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2010;70(8 Suppl):Abstract nr LB-81.

Uromodulin and Translational Medicine

Tamm-Horsfall protein (THP) was originally described in 1895 as “urinary mucoprotein” and biochemically characterized approximately 50 years ago. Kidney epithelial cells of all placental mammals synthesize THP, and it is the most abundant protein in normal urine.1,2 Pirica, a novel THP-like gene that is induced in response to predation, was recently identified in tadpoles, suggesting that THP family proteins are also present in invertebrate species.3 Uromodulin was originally reported as a unique immunosuppressive glycoprotein from the urine of pregnant women,4 and its amino acid composition is identical to THP.5 Standard nomenclature for THP is now uromodulin. Uromodulin provides a protein infrastructure for urinary casts used to diagnosis various kidney diseases in the clinic. Experimentalists have used both in vitro and in vivo models to define the biology of uromodulin in the urinary tract, and protein chemists have extensively characterized its biochemical properties and domains.6–10 Despite these efforts, the function of uromodulin remains an enigma. Published data suggest uromodulin is glycosyl phosphatidyl inositol-anchored along the apical domain of some kidney epithelia and secreted into urine and blood. It inhibits both bacterial colonization of the urinary track and stone formation, binds and activates leukocytes, and generates the water impermeability of the thick ascending limb of Henle by assembly into filaments through its zona pelucida domain. Tissue distribution of pirica, the amphibian uromodulin-like protein, also supports the hypothesis that uromodulin regulates the water permeability of tissue.3 Mutations in UMOD , the gene that encodes uromodulin, cause rare, autosomal dominant, primary tubulointerstitialkidney diseases, particularly familial juvenile hyperuricemicnephropathy (FJHN; OMIM 191845) and a form of medullary cystic kidney disease (MCKD2; …

Iodine, Selenium, and Other Trace Elements in Urine of Pregnant Women

The purpose of this work was to determine trace element levels in urine and evaluate possible associations between urinary iodine concentration (UIC), other trace elements (Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Na, Se, Zn), toxic elements (Cd, Pb), anthropometrical measures (body weight and height), glycemic indices (serum insulin and glucose), and several parameters related to thyroid function (thyroid stimulating hormone, free thyroxine, antithyroid peroxidase antibodies, thyroid volume, and thyroid echogenicity) in pregnant women. One hundred sixty-nine participants were recruited. The whole study group, originating from Krakow region, comprised three subgroups belonging to three trimesters: I trimester (n = 28), II trimester (n = 83), and III trimester (n = 58). Trace elements were determined using inductively coupled plasma mass/(atomic emission) spectrometry. Partial least square model was used to reveal correlation structure between parameters investigated, as well as a possible causal relationship between dependent parameters and potentially explanatory parameters. Results obtained for trace and toxic elements in urine were comparable with results of other authors, although the study group was not homogenous. We confirmed (1) low iodine excretion in pregnant women, (2) the existence of statistically significant correlation between UIC and urinary selenium, and (3) lack of correlation between latter parameter and typical indices of thyroid function. Urinary selenium correlated with other urinary trace elements, but physiological significance of this finding remains uncertain. The fact that a large number of pregnant women fail to meet dietary recommendations for iodine is the major reason for concern.

Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and newborn biometric indicators

The aim of the study was to examine the impact of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) on foetal growth. The prospective Polish Mother and Child Cohort study was performed in 8 regions of Poland. The study population consisted of 449 mother-child pairs All women were interviewed three times during pregnancy (once in each trimester). 1-hydroxypyrene (1-HP) concentration in urine was chosen as the biomarker of exposure to PAH. The urine sample collected from the participant women between 20-24 weeks of pregnancy was analysed using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The active and passive smoking exposure was verified by determination of saliva cotinine level using high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry/positive electrospray ionisation (LC-ESI+MS/MS) and isotope dilution method. The exposure to PAH measured by 1-HP level in urine of pregnant women was significantly associated with child birth weight (β = -158.3; p = 0.01), chest circumference (β = -0.7; p = 0.02) and cephalisation index (β = 4.2; p = 0.01) after adjustment for gestational age, child gender, pregnant woman marital status, educational level, season of last menstruation period (LMP), prepregnancy body mass index (BMI), and weight gain in pregnancy. After inclusion salivary cotinine levels into the analysis, the results were not statistically significant. Prenatal exposures to PAH adversely influence foetal development including child weight, length, head and chest circumference. Tobacco smoking is the important source of PAH. After controlling for active and passive smoking, the observed associations were not statistically significant.

Does maternal saliva contain fetal DNA usable for prenatal diagnostics?

Non-invasive molecular analysis of fetal DNA is the diagnostic goal of prenatal medicine. Circulating fetal DNA can be detected in maternal plasma. Recently, it has been detected in the urine of pregnant women. We hypothesize that fetal DNA is present also in maternal saliva and that advances in stabilization and isolation of nucleic acids from saliva enable non-invasive and repeated sampling for prenatal diagnostics. The hypothesis is testable using saliva samples of pregnant women with confirmed male fetuses. Y-specific sequences should be detectable in salivary DNA. Caution must be given to the prevention of contamination. If proved in large studies, the presence of fetal DNA fragments in maternal saliva would enable a wide range of applications in prenatal medicine.

Immunoreactive human chorionic gonadotropin beta core fragment in human pituitary.

The human pituitary has been shown to produce small amounts of immunoreactive human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and its alpha- and beta- subunit (hCG alpha, hCG beta). The aim of the present studies was to further examine the various hCG-related materials in the human pituitary, particularly to search for the existence of pituitary hCG beta core fragment (hCG beta cf)--like material. HCG beta cf has been found in the urine of pregnant women, patients with trophoblastic tumors and also in postmenopausal women. Gel chromatography of pituitary extract on Superdex 200 showed three distinct peaks of hCG-related immunoreactivities, i.e. hCG, hCG beta and hCG beta cf, which were distinguishable from hLH and hLH beta peaks. HCG beta cf was recognized by a specific immunometric assay (crossreactivities with hCG beta 0.016%, hLH beta 0.04%), but unreactive in an hLH + hLH beta assay. It was purified and displayed physical properties similar to those of hCG beta cf derived from pregnancy urine. Apart from immunological differences between the small molecular weight forms or fragments of hCG and LH origin, reversed phase HPLC was able to physically discriminate between hCG beta cf and hLH beta fragment. The latter was much more abundant than the former in the pituitary extract. HCG beta cf showed microheterogeneity related to its sialic acid content. In conclusion, the present data indicate that immunoreactive hCG beta cf is present in human pituitary extracts. The physical and immunological properties of pituitary hCG beta cf are distinguishable from those of the more abundant hLH beta and its fragment, and compare favorably with those of urinary hCG beta cf of trophoblastic origin.

Purification of three major forms of β-hCG from urine and production of polyclonal antibodies against them

Objectives This study has been conducted to develop a proper and relatively simple method for purification of three major forms of β-hCG from urine to use as clinical calibrators and also to produce anti-β-hCG polyclonal antibodies against these purified forms. Design and methods Major β-hCG forms from urine of pregnant women were purified using an ultrafiltration method followed by three successive steps: 1) affinity chromatography on a Concanavalin A-Sepharose column, 2) ion exchange chromatography on a DEAE-Sephacel column and 3) preparative gel electrophoresis. Specific polyclonal antibodies against the purified forms were produced by immunizing rats. We also extracted β-hCG from urine using trypsin affinity chromatography. Results Three β-hCG forms with the molecular mass (MW) of 28, 32 and 35 kDa were purified and identified by ELISA method using monoclonal antibodies against two distinct epitopes (β2 and β11) on β-hCG. The titer of prepared antibodies was comparable with common standard anti-β-hCG antibodies. Also we could purify a 37 kDa form of β-hCG by trypsin affinity chromatography. Conclusions Here we proposed two different proper methods for purification of major forms of β-hCG from urine. We also found that three prepared β-hCG forms expose the β11 epitope and have an hCGβcf epitope expressed. Specific antibodies against purified β-hCG forms had comparable titers and could be used in diagnostic kits.

From Transrenal DNA to Stem Cell Differentiation: An Unexpected Twist

In this issue of Clinical Chemistry , Hung et al. describe the results of a study originally devoted to investigation of the transrenal DNA (Tr-DNA)1 phenomenon. These authors report on the presence of donor-derived, cell-free DNA and cells in the urine of sex-mismatched hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) recipients(1). The term Tr-DNA defines DNA molecules that appear in the urine from sources located outside of the urinary system. The investigators who found such molecules in urine for the first time suggested that DNA fragments from cells dying throughout the body appear in the bloodstream as so-called cell-free circulating DNA (cfcDNA) and then cross the kidney barrier into the urine(2). Otherwise, it is difficult to explain how fetal DNA appears in the urine of pregnant women or how tumor-specific DNA markers appear in the urine of patients with tumors located outside of the urinary system. This original observation was reproduced in many laboratories(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7). At the same time, several groups could not detect fetal DNA in the urine of pregnant women(8)(9), raising doubts about the concept of Tr-DNA. The latter results can be explained by the fact that Tr-DNA fragments are shorter than cfcDNA, and shorter amplicons should be used for their detection(4)(7)(10), especially in prenatal models in which concentrations of fetal DNA in maternal urine are low. It is also important to remember that urinary DNA from other sources complicates analysis of Tr-DNA. Other sources of urinary DNA include epithelial cells shed from the organs of the urinary system, often lymphocytes and …

Optimization of Transrenal DNA Analysis: Detection of Fetal DNA in Maternal Urine

Fragments of DNA from cells dying throughout the body are detectable in urine (transrenal DNA, or Tr-DNA). Our goal was the optimization of Tr-DNA isolation and detection techniques, using as a model the analysis of fetal DNA in maternal urine. We isolated urinary DNA using a traditional silica-based method and using a new technique based on adsorption of cell-free nucleic acids on Q-Sepharose resin. The presence of Y chromosome-specific SRY (sex-determining region Y) sequences in urine of pregnant women was detected by conventional and real-time PCR using primers/probe sets designed for 25-, 39-, 65-, and 88-bp PCR targets. Method of DNA isolation and PCR target size affected fetal Tr-DNA detection. Assay diagnostic sensitivity increases as the PCR target is shortened. Shorter DNA fragments (50-150 bp) could be isolated by Q-resin-based technique, which also facilitated fetal Tr-DNA analysis. Using DNA isolated by Q-resin-based method and an "ultrashort" DNA target, we successfully detected SRY sequences in 78 of 82 urine samples from women pregnant with male fetuses (positive predictive value 87.6%). Eleven of 91 urine samples from women pregnant with female fetuses produced SRY false-positive results (negative predictive value 95.2%). Single-copy fetal DNA sequences can be successfully detected in the urine of pregnant women when adequate methods for DNA isolation and analysis are applied. Strong precautions against sample contamination with male cells and DNA are necessary to avoid false-positive results.

Concentration of dialkylphosphate metabolites of organophosphate pesticides in pregnant women's urine in the island of Crete

Concentration of dialkylphosphate metabolites of organophosphate pesticides in pregnant women's urine in the island of Crete

Reactivation of Polyomavirus hominis 1 (BKV) during pregnancy and the risk of mother-to-child transmission

Background Pregnancy is associated with down-regulation of immune responses of the mother. This might lead to reactivation and vertical transmission of latent viral infections such as BK virus (BKV). Objectives To determine the presence of BKV in the urine of pregnant women and in cord blood at delivery. Study design We examined urines from 52 pregnant women and 51 cord blood samples for BKV by real-time SYBR green PCR. Results BKV DNA was found in the urine of 18 (34.6%) pregnant women. No BKV DNA was detected by SYBR green PCR in the cord blood specimens. Conclusions BKV reactivation is common during pregnancy but this is not associated with BKV in cord blood.

Urinary 1-hydroxypyrene, air pollution exposure and associated life style factors in pregnant women

1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) is a biomarker of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). PAHs are pollutants produced by the combustion of organic material, and could be found both indoors and outdoors. Prenatal exposure to these compounds has been associated with retarded intrauterine growth and respiratory problems in children. The objective of this study is to describe the 1-OHP levels in urine in pregnant women in the INMA cohort in Valencia, and to study the association with socio-demographic and lifestyle variables, as well as with indicators of air pollution. The study population is a sub-sample ( n: 204) of a cohort of pregnant women in the multicentre INMA project in Valencia (Spain). Urine samples were taken in week 12 of gestation, and 1-OHP was analyzed, and adjusted for creatinine. Socio-demographic and lifestyle information was collected using a questionnaire. Data from the monitoring stations in Valencia were used to assign levels of exposure to nitrogen dioxide (NO 2), sulphur dioxide (SO 2), total suspended particulates (TSP) and carbon monoxide (CO). The median 1-OHP level was 0.061 μmol/mol of creatinine. Women who smoked had higher 1-OHP levels (0.095 μmol/mol of creatinine) than non-smokers (0.050 μmol/mol of creatinine). The variables predicting 1-OHP levels on linear multivariate analysis were: tobacco consumption, consumption of fried and smoked foods. There was also a significant association with NO 2 levels 4 and 5 days before the samples were taken. The 1-OHP levels found in pregnant women in Valencia were higher than those found among women in reports in USA. 1-hydroxypyrene could be a good marker of exposure to PAHs from tobacco and diet, and also a useful marker of short term exposure to air pollution.

Comparison of urinary and plasma cotinine levels during the three trimesters of pregnancy

Assays of metabolised cotinine are considered to be an accurate measure of exposure to cigarette smoke among pregnant women. We investigated the association and differences between the cotinine levels in maternal urine and blood, and the umbilical cord blood of three tobacco exposure groups at different stages of pregnancy. A prospective study was conducted among 398 pregnant women undergoing prenatal care in different trimesters at two medical centres and one regional hospital in central Taiwan. All 398 subjects (including 25 smokers, 191 passive smokers and 182 non-smokers) remained in the study up to the time of delivery; 384 of them delivered singleton live births. Cotinine levels were assayed in the maternal plasma and urine of the mothers at each trimester and in the cord blood of the newborns. All specimens were measured using a sensitive high-performance liquid chromatography. Cotinine concentrations in plasma and urine showed a significant dose-dependent difference among the three groups (non-smoker, passive and active smoker) and a trend that increased with gestation among the pregnant women. Significant correlations between cotinine concentrations in plasma and urine among the pregnant women in each trimester were found. In addition, the level of cotinine in umbilical cord blood was significantly correlated with that in maternal blood at term (r = 0.89, P < 0.001). A pattern of elevated cotinine concentrations in the plasma and urine of pregnant women from the beginning to the end of pregnancy was found, and this correlated significantly with the cotinine levels in the umbilical cord blood.