Urban Search And Rescue Operations Research Articles

Identifying the Early Post-Mortem VOC Profile from Cadavers in a Morgue Environment Using Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography

Understanding the VOC profile released during the early post-mortem period is essential for applications in training human remains detection dogs and urban search and rescue operations (USAR) to rapidly locate living and deceased victims. Human cadavers were sampled at the UQTR morgue within a 0–72 h post-mortem interval. VOC samples were collected from the headspace above the cadavers, using Tenax TA/Carbograph 5TD dual sorbent tubes, and analyzed using GC×GC-TOFMS. Multiple data processing steps, including peak table alignment and filtering, were undertaken using LECO ChromaToF and custom scripts in R programming language. This study identified 104 prevalent VOCs, some of which are linked to human decomposition, while others are connected to the persistence of living scent. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) further highlighted that VOC profiles can change dynamically over time, even in a controlled setting. The findings underscore the complexity and variability in VOC profiles during the early post-mortem period. This variability is influenced by multiple factors including the individual’s biological and physiological conditions. Despite the challenges in characterizing these profiles, the identified VOCs could potentially serve as markers in forensic applications. The study also highlights the need for additional research to build a dataset of VOCs for more robust forensic applications.

Unmanned aerial systems (UAS) in urban search and rescue-methodology, capacity development, and integration.

This paper's purpose is to establish a methodological basis for using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) in urban search and rescue (USAR). Modern USAR operations involve the location, rescue (extrication), and initial medical stabilization of individuals trapped in confined spaces or places with complicated access, eg, high structures. As a part of the ongoing modernization process, this paper explores possible options for UAV utilization in USAR operations. Today, UAV are already taking part in support emergency operations all over the world, and possible forms of operation for UAV in USAR environment can be in two primary modes: on-site and logistic chain. The on-site mode includes various capabilities of multilayer UAV array, mostly based on enhanced visual capabilities to create situational awareness and to speed-up search and rescue (SAR) process including using nanodrones for entering into confined places, ventilation ducts, and underground sewer channels can give to rescue teams' opportunities to have eyes within ruins even before initial clearing process. Cargo drones will be able to bring equipment directly to high floors or roadless areas in comparison to wheeled transportation. The advantages of cargo drones operation are the ability of autonomous flight based on GPS or homing beacon and ability to provide logistics supports with-out involving additional personnel and vehicles and with no dependence on road conditions.

Developing an Agent-Based Simulation System for Post-Earthquake Operations in Uncertainty Conditions: A Proposed Method for Collaboration among Agents

Agent-based modeling is a promising approach for developing simulation tools for natural hazards in different areas, such as during urban search and rescue (USAR) operations. The present study aimed to develop a dynamic agent-based simulation model in post-earthquake USAR operations using geospatial information system and multi agent systems (GIS and MASs, respectively). We also propose an approach for dynamic task allocation and establishing collaboration among agents based on contract net protocol (CNP) and interval-based Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) methods, which consider uncertainty in natural hazards information during agents’ decision-making. The decision-making weights were calculated by analytic hierarchy process (AHP). In order to implement the system, earthquake environment was simulated and the damage of the buildings and a number of injuries were calculated in Tehran’s District 3: 23%, 37%, 24% and 16% of buildings were in slight, moderate, extensive and completely vulnerable classes, respectively. The number of injured persons was calculated to be 17,238. Numerical results in 27 scenarios showed that the proposed method is more accurate than the CNP method in the terms of USAR operational time (at least 13% decrease) and the number of human fatalities (at least 9% decrease). In interval uncertainty analysis of our proposed simulated system, the lower and upper bounds of uncertain responses are evaluated. The overall results showed that considering uncertainty in task allocation can be a highly advantageous in the disaster environment. Such systems can be used to manage and prepare for natural hazards.

Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to develop prioritization maps in urban search and rescue operations, after a natural disaster. Case study: the municipality of Agia Paraskevi, Athens, Greece.

Abstract A natural phenomenon often entails considerable consequences, such as the destruction of infrastructures and the loss of human lives. However, the number of casualties does not only depend on the severity of the natural phenomena but also on the effectiveness of the Urban Search And Rescue (USAR) operations, coordinated by the Operation Center (OC). The number of the incoming information is usually large, while the available USAR teams are limited, resulting in misleading decisions, regarding the prioritizing of the USAR operations, and huge delays. This ineffectiveness could result in a disproportionate number of casualties and decline the civilians’ trust to the national and local government, producing political instability to the region or the country. Thus, an automated process, which prioritize the USAR operations is absolutely necessary, in order to ensure that the OC will take the best possible decisions in minimum time. In this study, a methodology is developed, regarding the production of prioritization maps (heatmaps), which identify and prioritize the most critical regions in an area prior to the occurrence of the natural disaster. At the time that the natural disaster occurs, their use from the OC, combined with the incoming information, will contribute to an effective and quick decision-making process, which in turn will minimize the casualties, and ensure the rapid return to normality and stability of the whole area. In order to develop this methodology several scenarios are taken into account, depending on the time and the day of the natural disaster and determining the most likely distribution of the population in the area under consideration. Statistical data (population and building data) and data of vulnerable social groups (eg disabled persons, children) are processed in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to develop heatmaps. Finally, the previous described methodology has been applied for the municipality of Agia Paraskevi (a suburb of Athens), and the corresponding heatmaps are developed. The produced maps present the most critical areas of the municipality and their use, in a case of a natural disaster, is expected to enhance the effectiveness of USAR teams ensuring political stability.

Where to go first: prioritization of damaged areas for allocation of Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) operations (PI-USAR model)

This paper presents the development of a spatial model for the allocation of the Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) operation by computing the priority index of damaged areas (PI-USAR model). The relevant prioritization criteria were identified through a literature review and interviews with 30 disaster managers. The relative importance of these criteria was computed as weights using an analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method; the criteria were combined based on AHP rules and spatial multi-criteria decision-making analysis in geographic information system (GIS). The PI-USAR model was applied in the case study area of the Bam city in Iran and a priority map was produced indicating four highly prioritized areas. The model was validated by comparing the obtained priority map with the actual priority map (APM) using fuzzy inference system and relative operating characteristic methods. The result suggested a good fit between the APM and the model's output. Sensitivity analyses were performed using the map removal and the single parameter methods. With the uncertainties and complexities that are inherent to the spatial data, spatial modelling and the earthquake phenomenon itself, the PI-USAR model offers some utility to disaster managers in understanding the significance of each criterion in the decision-making process and in identifying the highly prioritized areas for the allocation of USAR operations. However, its utility is best exploited in conjunction with other complementary sources of field data based on the immediate post-disaster situation.

Factors that affect rescue time in urban search and rescue (USAR) operations

Recent structural collapses were studied in order to identify gaps in technology and to propose priorities in enhancing urban search and rescue (USAR) tools. The timelines of the events were examined with the scope of extracting critical factors that affect rescue time and can be used to define priorities in tools and technologies development, so that efficient and fast location, recovery and treatment of victims can be achieved. In this context, seven factors were identified: (1) best practices and lessons learned, (2) rescue technology, (3) community involvement, (4) information systems, (5) technology integration, (6) crisis management and (7) available budget. Each of these factors is reviewed, analyzed and discussed with the scope of providing future developments in tools and technology for USAR operations.

Emission rates of selected volatile organic compounds from skin of healthy volunteers.

Gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection (GC-MS) coupled with solid phase micro-extraction as pre-concentration method (SPME) was applied to identify and quantify volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by human skin. A total of 64 C4-C10 compounds were quantified in skin emanation of 31 healthy volunteers. Amongst them aldehydes and hydrocarbons were the predominant chemical families with eighteen and seventeen species, respectively. Apart from these, there were eight ketones, six heterocyclic compounds, six terpenes, four esters, two alcohols, two volatile sulphur compounds, and one nitrile. The observed median emission rates ranged from 0.55 to 4,790 fmol cm(-2)min(-1). Within this set of analytes three volatiles; acetone, 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, and acetaldehyde exhibited especially high emission rates exceeding 100 fmol cm(-2)min(-1). Thirty-three volatiles were highly present in skin emanation with incidence rates over 80%. These species can be considered as potential markers of human presence, which could be used for early location of entrapped victims during Urban Search and Rescue Operations (USaR).

Monitoring of selected skin-borne volatile markers of entrapped humans by selective reagent ionization time of flight mass spectrometry in NO+ mode.

Selective reagent ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry with NO+ as the reagent ion (SRI-TOF-MS (NO+)) was applied for near real-time monitoring of selected skin-borne constituents which are potential markers of human presence. The experimental protocol involved a group of 10 healthy volunteers enclosed in a body plethysmography chamber mimicking the entrapment environment. A total of 12 preselected omnipresent in human scent volatiles were quantitatively monitored. Among them there were six aldehydes (n-propanal, n-hexanal, n-heptanal, n-octanal, n-nonanal, and 2 methyl 2-propenal), four ketones (acetone, 2-butanone, 3-buten-2-one, and 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one), one hydrocarbon (2-methyl 2-pentene), and one terpene (DL-limonene). The observed median emission rates ranged from 0.28 to 44.8 nmol × person–1 × min–1 (16–1530 fmol × cm–2 × min–1). Within the compounds under study, ketones in general and acetone in particular exhibited the highest abundances. The findings of this study provide invaluable information about formation and evolution of a human-specific chemical fingerprint, which could be used for the early location of entrapped victims during urban search and rescue operations (USaR).

Study of efficiency of USAR operations with assistive technologies

This paper presents a study on efficiency of Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) missions that has been carried out within the framework of the German research project I-LOV. After three years of development, first field tests have been carried out in 2011 by professionals such as the Rapid Deployment Unit for Salvage Operations Abroad (SEEBA). We present results from evaluating search teams in simulated USAR scenarios equipped with newly developed technical search means and digital data input terminals developed in the I-LOV project. In particular, USAR missions assisted by the ‘bioradar’, a radar system for the detection of humanoid movements, a semi-active video probe of more than 10m length for rubble pile exploration, a snake-like rescue robot, and the decision support system FRIEDAA were evaluated and compared with conventional USAR missions. Results of this evaluation indicate that the developed technologies represent an advantage for USAR missions, which are discussed in this paper.

Search and rescue in collapsed structures: engineering and social science aspects

This paper discusses the social science and engineering dimensions of search and rescue (SAR) in collapsed buildings. First, existing information is presented on factors that influence the behaviour of trapped victims, particularly human, physical, socioeconomic and circumstantial factors. Trapped victims are most often discussed in the context of structural collapse and injuries sustained. Most studies in this area focus on earthquakes as the type of disaster that produces the most extensive structural damage. Second, information is set out on the engineering aspects of urban search and rescue (USAR) in the United States, including the role of structural engineers in USAR operations, training and certification of structural specialists, and safety and general procedures. The use of computational simulation to link the engineering and social science aspects of USAR is discussed. This could supplement training of local SAR groups and USAR teams, allowing them to understand better the collapse process and how voids form in a rubble pile. A preliminary simulation tool developed for this purpose is described.

Physiological Response Of USAR-workers During Training In Extreme Hot Conditions

Urban Search And Rescue (USAR) teams are often deployed in areas where the ambient conditions can be classified as 'extreme'. USAR operations often take several days in which team members work in irregular work shifts. The extreme conditions combined with the irregular work shifts involve high physical demands. Little is known about the physiological requirements of search-and-rescue tasks under extreme conditions over a prolonged period of time. PURPOSE: To evaluate the physiological responses of Dutch USAR-workers during a 4-day training period in the desert near Dubai (UAE). METHODS: The training period was divided in three parts: a 2 day adaptation period in the heat, 4 consecutive days of USAR training and a 2 day recovery period. During the adaptation period the activities as ordered by the training staff were observed by the research team. During the 4 day training period, 8 experienced USAR-workers (42.3±7.2 yr; BMI 27.0±3.7) were monitored. Core temperature (Tcore) and heart rate (HR) was measured with the EquivitalTM-system (Hidalgo Ltd., Cambridge UK). The percentage heart rate reserve (%HRR) as derived from HR was used as measure for the relative physical workload. Environmental conditions were measured and logged with a mobile weather station (QuestTemp 36, Oconomowoc, WI, USA) to calculate the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT). RESULTS: During the adaptation period the rescue workers were ordered to stay outdoors as much as possible and be physically active in the heat. This resulted in a 10-15% prevalence of symptoms of heat related problems (headache, nausea, etc.). During the 4 day training period a mean WBGT-value of 27.4±3.6°C (range: 23.7-34.5°C) was measured. A mean core temperature during rescue activities of 38.0±0.3°C was measured. Individual values for Tcore exceeded 39.5°C. The mean workload was 'light to moderate' (between 20-40%HRR), but during some of the activities peak values of 80%HRR were calculated. On the final day of the training period one of the subjects was hospitalized due to severe heat illness. CONCLUSION: It is concluded that the training of the Dutch USAR-team took place under extreme environmental conditions. Although mean physiological responses were not extremely high, individual values pointed out that the USAR-workers were exposed to extreme high risks.