ABSTRACT Cities increasingly form the habitat of humans and are thereby key to solutions to current human-induced sustainability challenges. In response, we here present a model of spatial urban form linked to human behaviour by cognitive geometry, and, in aggregation, urban processes of social, economic and ecological kinds, such as social networks, local markets and urban ecosystems. It aims to demonstrate how spatial form can influence and direct such processes and thereby constitute a capital in the sense of embodied labour, here called spatial capital, that not only can improve the use value of such processes but also increase the monetary value of urban land.

ABSTRACT The dominance of private cars in urban areas has led to increased parking demand, often at little or no cost to drivers despite the high value of urban land. Efforts to reform parking policies, particularly through the introduction of higher fees and removal of on-street parking, frequently encounter public and political resistance. This paper introduces and explores the concept of Mobility Benefit Districts (MBDs), an adaptation of Shoup’s Parking Benefit Districts. MBD aims to increase public acceptability of parking charges by earmarking revenues for sustainable mobility and involving residents through participatory budgeting. Through a systematic literature review and analysis of eight European case studies, we explored examples that implemented at least one of two core elements of MBD: (1) the earmarking of parking revenues for alternative mobility and public space improvements, and (2) participatory processes in the allocation of these funds. We assessed policy measures and real-world examples regarding their impact on transport, acceptability and liveability. Our analysis revealed a general lack of literature addressing parking fee hypothecation. We also identified minimal community engagement during the implementation of measures, barring political and public acceptability. For the design and implementation of MBD, we emphasise the importance of enabling legal frameworks at a neighbourhood-level, continuous participatory processes, and strategic framing of MBD benefits to build public support.

As a vital component of the urban ecosystem, green open spaces (GOS) play crucial ecological, social, and aesthetic roles in maintaining the balance of the city environment. The importance of GOS is also mandated by local regulations concerning the spatial planning of Palembang City, which affirm the government’s commitment to sustainable urban management. In formulating policy foundations related to GOS, regional governments often face strategic challenges in determining where to begin, which actions are most effective, and in what direction the policies should be directed. This study aims to identify and analyze the structural interrelationships among key factors influencing the sustainability of urban green open spaces in Palembang City, in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the systemic dynamics underlying the effectiveness of GOS management policies. This research employs a structural analysis approach using the MICMAC (Matrix of Cross Impact Multiplication Applied to Classification) method to examine the causal relationships and the patterns of influence and dependence among 20 variables categorized into four dimensions of sustainability: (1) governance and policy, (2) physical and environmental aspects, (3) social aspects and community participation, and (4) economic and financial aspects. The results show that seven variables: urbanization and population density, spatial law enforcement, urban land value, government budget allocation, land-use change, land availability, and inter-agency coordination, constitute the primary driving factors with the highest direct influence on the system. These variables exert strong structural power and therefore form the strategic foundation for strengthening GOS governance and ensuring long-term spatial sustainability. In terms of priority ranking, urbanization and population density emerged as the most dominant factor influencing GOS sustainability. Projection of future priorities indicates rising influence for land availability, spatial law enforcement, GOS accessibility, green investment, and community-level green space provision, reflecting a growing need to safeguard spatial integrity, strengthen legal compliance, and enhance public access to green infrastructure. The identification of these key factors can serve as a valuable reference for stakeholders in making informed decisions and developing integrated strategies for sustainable urban green space management.

The rapid expansion of built-up land, measured as Impervious Surface Area (ISA), in Pekanbaru City has raised concerns about urban sustainability and regulatory compliance. This study develops a sustainable control model for built-up land growth integrating normative-legal and empirical-spatial perspectives. Using the Spatial Sustainability Assessment Model (SSAM) and GIS, 702,556 raster pixels of spatial data were analyzed, and systematic sampling generated 76 sample points for logistic regression analysis. Sixty-seven independent variables were examined, comprising biophysical (12), social (31), and economic (24) factors. Ensemble machine learning models, particularly CatBoost with GoldenFeatures, were applied to predict ISA growth and identify key drivers, including urban land values, population density, and the location of health and education facilities. Findings indicate that weak enforcement of relevant laws and regional regulations exacerbates unregulated land conversion. The study provides actionable insights for local governments, recommending stricter zoning enforcement, alignment with environmental laws, and targeted monitoring of high-risk areas to achieve sustainable urban growth. It recommends using the model for risk-based monitoring, enabling a shift from reactive penalties to proactive zoning enforcement to achieve sustainable urban growth.

This study examines territorial transformations in five rural parishes of the Metropolitan District of Quito induced by the Ruta Viva expressway (inaugurated in 2013). Using census tracts for 2011, 2017, 2021, and 2024 and four variables—urban land use (COS/BCR), building permits (metropolitan licenses), land value, and population density—we construct a PCA-based territorial impact index and classify outcomes with Jenks natural breaks. Results show marked heterogeneity across parishes: Cumbayá–Tumbaco concentrates high-impact tracts and sustained consolidation, while Pifo–Tababela–Puembo exhibits selective or delayed changes. Over 2011–2024, land value more than tripled on average (with parish-level peaks > 200%), and the population grew 46%, reshaping density patterns. The findings highlight infrastructure-induced reconfiguration and underscore the need to align territorial planning instruments with value capture and inclusionary tools for more equitable and environmentally sustainable outcomes.

The phenomenon of gated communities has become one of the most visible features of contemporary urban housing development across the Global South, reflecting both socioeconomic aspirations and urban governance challenges. In Nigeria, the emergence of gated residential enclaves has been widely associated with security concerns, infrastructural deficiencies, and the desire for exclusivity (Landman, 2012; Ukoje & Kanu, 2014). This study investigates the role of gated communities in shaping property market dynamics within Akure, Ondo State, a medium-sized Nigerian city that is increasingly experiencing real estate transformation. The research employed a mixed-method design that combined quantitative surveys of 200 households with qualitative interviews involving 15 key informants, including developers, estate managers, and government officials. The findings demonstrate that gated communities significantly raise property values, with land and housing in such estates selling for 60–85% more than in comparable non-gated neighborhoods. As one respondent remarked during interviews, “Buying into a gated estate in Akure is not just about land; it is about status, security, and future value”. This confirms earlier observations that gated living is both an economic and symbolic practice that reinforces class-based residential segregation (Low, 2003; Blakely & Snyder, 1997). Beyond property appreciation, the study reveals that gated communities alter residential demand patterns by attracting middle- and upper-income groups, thereby intensifying affordability challenges for low-income households. Such developments have also introduced new spatial forms that reconfigure the city’s growth trajectory, with private developers increasingly assuming roles once reserved for the state in housing provision (Grant, 2005). However, these benefits come at a cost: exclusionary practices, uneven infrastructure distribution, and the reinforcement of socio-spatial inequalities. This duality reflects what Molotch (1976) theorized as the “urban growth machine,” where land-use changes are driven by profit motives but often at the expense of social equity. The study concludes that gated communities are double-edged in their impact on property markets in Akure. On the one hand, they stimulate real estate investment, drive urban land values upward, and satisfy the demand for secure and organized housing environments. On the other hand, they exacerbate affordability crises and deepen urban socio-economic divides. As urbanization intensifies in Nigerian secondary cities, policy interventions are required to balance the benefits of gated developments with inclusive housing policies. Without such strategies, the rapid expansion of gated estates may lead to long-term spatial fragmentation and unequal access to urban opportunities.

The digital economy is fundamentally transforming urban landscapes by disrupting traditional relationships between land use and land value. This scoping review aims to examine how digital transformations alter urban activities, human behaviours, and mobility patterns, and to assess the subsequent impacts on land use planning and land valuation frameworks. Following PRISMA guidelines, Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and ProQuest databases were systematically searched for peer-reviewed articles published between 2019 and 2024. Inclusion criteria comprised empirical studies, theoretical papers, and case studies examining digital economy impacts on urban land use or land value. Grey literature, non-English publications, and studies without clear urban spatial implications were excluded. The data were synthesised using bibliometric analysis and thematic analysis to identify patterns of disruption across three domains: urban activities, behaviours, and mobility. Of the 512 initially identified articles, 66 studies met the inclusion criteria. The evidence demonstrates significant geographic bias and methodological limitations, including the scarcity of longitudinal studies tracking actual land value changes and inconsistent metrics for measuring disruption intensity. Despite these limitations, findings indicate that the digital economy is decoupling land value from traditional determinants, such as physical proximity to services and employment centres. These transformations necessitate fundamental revisions to urban planning frameworks, land valuation models, and regulatory approaches to ensure equitable and sustainable urban development in the digital age.

Abstract The recent proliferation of locative mobile devices and location‐based services has sparked geographers' interest in how such ‘spatial media’ reshape individual's mobility, spatial experiences, and perceptions. Notably, the urban and digital geography literature has highlighted the relationship between spatial media, gentrification, and urban redevelopment processes, suggesting the potential of spatial media to generate new capitalist opportunities and increase the profitability of urban spaces. In this context, this study examines how spatial media reconfigure urban land value patterns, which have been primarily explained through urban forms. To this end, we employ the spatial capital model, a regression model that predicts property value patterns using variables associated with urban forms. We demonstrate that models incorporating both offline spatial configurations and online popularity outperform the spatial capital model relying solely on physical urban layouts, thereby underscoring the role of spatial media in reshaping the spatial arrangements of capital in urban centres. Using a machine learning algorithm, we construct and compare spatial capital models and regression models with variables reflecting online popularity on Instagram to estimate land prices in three neighbourhoods in Seoul: Yeonnam‐dong, Seongsu‐dong, and Gyeongridan‐gil. These regions have experienced a surge in property values following heightened visibility on Instagram since the mid‐2010s. Our findings indicate that the performance of models incorporating Instagram data exhibit superior predictive performance relative to traditional spatial capital models. Instagram‐related variables also demonstrates greater explanatory power than conventional variables related to urban forms in predicting land price change rates. Additionally, the influence of online popularity on Instagram varies across time and space, closely aligned with the phase of development in online popularity within each area. In conclusion, spatial media have increasingly shaped urban land value patterns, while the dynamics between spatial media, urban forms, and property values can vary alongside the development of online popularity in specific regions.

Land value capture is an underutilized and sometimes misunderstood component of urban policy. In this article, we develop a conceptual framework to compare four approaches to land value capture—land and property taxes, real estate transfer taxes, betterment levies, and development charges. Given that urban land values arise from collective action, local governments should tax this wealth to fund public infrastructure. However, local governments confront technical and political challenges in properly applying different land value capture mechanisms, which also vary substantially in equity and efficiency. Using Mexico City as a case study, we propose a conceptual framework to assess the technical and political challenges of the design components of land value capture mechanisms, as well as their impacts on equity and efficiency. We find that technical challenges to land value capture appraisals have substantially diminished and are surmountable, yet political challenges remain. The proposed conceptual framework facilitates a comparative approach to guide planners and policymakers toward more equitable and less distortionary land value capture strategies. We argue that land value capture mechanisms should not be dismissed as viable solutions due to the shortcomings of past implementations. Instead, scholars can use the proposed framework to identify a mechanism's limitations and propose better policy.

Purpose Increasing number of residents in rapidly urbanizing cities of sub-Saharan African are experiencing growing exclusion. This study aims to examine socio-spatial exclusion in housing markets and seeks to understand policy and market-based trajectories of exclusion in Hawassa City, Ethiopia. Design/methodology/approach A mixed-methods approach was used, combining primary and secondary data. Interviews, document reviews and housing price data were gathered. Tender-based data for 1,927 plots over a 10-year period was obtained from the city’s land development department. In addition, 120 Global Positioning System-based housing price data points were randomly collected, considering location in X-Y coordinates, housing types, distance from the central business district (CBD) and sale repetition. Data were analyzed thematically, and spatial patterns of housing prices were mapped using techniques like inverse distance weighted interpolation and Moran’s clustering in ArcGIS. Findings The study revealed a growing trend in housing prices driven by policy and market forces, leading to spatial exclusion. Gaps in housing policy drove demand for peri-urban areas, fueling black markets and gentrification, which exacerbated socio-spatial exclusion over time. Housing prices in formal and informal markets show a converging trend, driven by neoliberal policies and market forces prioritizing urban land values. Housing prices exhibit spatial disparity, with significant hikes observed at 4 km from the CBD, reflecting the impact of location and policy. The findings demonstrate an evolving polycentric urban hubs driving socio-spatial exclusion in housing markets. Research limitations/implications Based on the findings, this study calls for further research on viable housing policies to promote a socio-spatially inclusive housing market in rapidly urbanizing sub-Saharan African cities. This requires analyzing robust housing market data (both spatial and nonspatial) across inner-city and peri-urban areas, exploring innovative land management approaches and understanding the housing realities of low-income urban residents using ethnographic approaches, including deeper socioeconomic and political forces. Practical implications The study has implications for promoting inclusive housing policies and market options in rapidly urbanizing cities of sub-Saharan Africa, supported by robust housing/land market data, primarily targeting on the housing realities of households at the lower end of the market. Rapidly urbanizing cities could also promote urban entrepreneurialism by advocating policies that create markets to drive socio-spatial inclusivity. Originality/value This manuscript presents a scientific case on the social and spatial dimensions of housing markets within the context of embedded housing policy frameworks and market forces in sub-Saharan Africa. Drawing on a case study from Hawassa, Ethiopia, it also provides empirical data and sheds light on the exclusion/inclusion literature and urban rent theory. Based on the findings, the study also emphasizes the emerging implications – growing gentrification and socio-spatial exclusion – reflecting neoliberal urbanism in the housing markets of Hawassa City.

Abstract At present, big data and mining technology has been more and more applied to urban planning practice. Based on data mining technology and geographic information visualization, this article puts forward a study on the optimization of territorial spatial planning. This article selects the clustering algorithm and decision tree in data mining technology, combines them organically, and puts forward spatial data mining. Cluster analysis is used to conduct spatial cluster analysis of comprehensive spatial data to explore whether there is spatial correlation and large-scale contiguous data in the data; if so, it can realize the purpose of national territorial space division. According to the analysis of the relevant data of land use planning and the characteristics of the business process, the overall design of the land use planning decision support system was carried out. The preliminary effects of land use planning clustering were generated through the usage of the K-central factor clustering algorithm, and the consequences with excessive classification accuracy have been chosen as coaching samples mixed with the baseline of time series. Finally, the K nearest neighbor classification algorithm primarily based on dynamic time warping is used to classify and perceive the city's practical place again. With the useful resource of point of interest data, the remaining city characteristic identification result is obtained. Finally, the simulation analysis shows that the area under curve (AUC) value of seven types of land use is 0.9376 for cultivated land, 0.85442 for forested land, 0.81747 for grassland, 0.8708 for water area, and 0.86672 for rural residential area. The AUC value of other construction land is 0.80346, and the AUC value of urban construction land is 0.9376. In the urban expansion planning project, multi-source data such as land use status data, population distribution data, and economic development data are integrated, and the spatial agglomeration pattern of land use types is found by using the method proposed in this article, so as to provide a reference for rational planning of urban expansion direction.

The Tax on the Increase of Urban Land Value has been found unconstitutional on three occasions, but the last one (Constitutional Court Ruling 182/2021 of 26 October) was the final blow when declaring the unconstitutionality of the method at the time of determining the taxable base, what means the impossibility of settling, reviewing and verifying it until new regulation. The Royal Decree-Law 26/2021 of 8 November adapts the tax without being retroactive but does not include a solution to the problems reflected in the considerable body of case-law settled since its first declaration of unconstitutionality. Through the tenets reflected in scientific journals and case law, since 2017 a ground of argument on the prove of the lack of increase has been established to avoid the transmition from being taxed, thus covering the deficiencies of the aforementioned tax. However, being regulated by a Royal Decree-Law, the misconfiguration of the tax has not been corrected. Given the new regulation of the tax and the legal vacuum produced as a result of its last declaration of unconstitutionality, discrepancies arise on the possibilities of tax clearing for periods, now legally void, on future settlements, and on admissible administrative or judicial reviews. El Impuesto sobre el Incremento de los Terrenos de Naturaleza Urbana ha sufrido tres declaraciones de inconstitucionalidad, pero la última (STC 182/2021, de 26 de octubre) supuso el golpe definitivo al declarar la inconstitucionalidad del método de determinación de la base imponible, lo que implicó la imposibilidad de liquidar, revisar y comprobar hasta nueva regulación. El RDL 26/2021 de 8 de noviembre adapta el impuesto sin ser retroactivo, pero no recoge la solución a los problemas reflejados en la numerosa jurisprudencia, asentada desde la primera declaración de inconstitucionalidad del impuesto. A través de la doctrina reflejada en revistas científicas y en la jurisprudencia; desde 2017 se han asentado unas bases sobre la acreditación de la falta de incremento, para evitar que la transmisión tributara por el impuesto y se cubrieran las deficiencias de éste. Sin embargo, al ser regulado por un Real Decreto Ley, no se ha corregido su mala configuración. Ante la nueva regulación del impuesto y el vacío legal producido desde la última declaración de inconstitucionalidad, surgen discrepancias sobre las posibilidades de liquidación para periodos, ahora vacíos de ley, sobre liquidaciones futuras, y sobre los recursos admisibles en vía administrativa y judicial.

Studies of the impacts of rail-based mass transit systems on land values and real estate prices are scarce in the Colombian context. Most studies have focused on estimating the impacts of bus rapid transit systems (BRT), mainly in Bogotá. There is an emerging literature on rail-based systems impacts on urban development and land values in Medellín, Colombia, while there is also an emerging interest regarding the effects of the announcements of the two metro projects of Bogotá in the city’s urban spatial structure. This paper develops a quasi-experimental research design looking at the anticipatory effects of the two lines of the Bogota Metro program on real estate market dynamics between 2007 and 2023. We used databases generated by the private sector with new housing developments including housing unit attributes and we estimated spatial variables and urban attributes associated with the location of each real estate development project. Through hedonic price models with control variables that incorporate attributes at different scales, our study estimates the effects of the Bogota Metro Line 1 project (in construction since 2021) on prices per square meter of real estate development projects over time. Results of the analysis suggest that the regulations implemented by the city, establishing an 800-meter impact area along Line 1, have had positive effects on real estate market prices after 2016, while results found no changes on real estate development dynamics in terms of prices per square meter due to the announcements of the planned second line of the metro project. We also included statistical analysis using isochrones based on walking distances to future metro stations. We found that the positive effects are taking place in all isochrones for the first line, while there are differences in the case of the second line of the metro project. Based on these findings, we provide guidelines for future research including public policy recommendations for the local and national government regarding value capture opportunities associated with the announcement of large-scale rail based urban transport projects.

PurposeThis study conducts a systematic literature review on the determination of urban land value to offer a comprehensive understanding of the methods, datasets, themes and factors of land value. The study aims to identify research gaps and suggest directions for future research in urban land value.Design/methodology/approachThe study adopts the systematic literature review (SLR) approach to synthesize the literature on urban land value. The SLR is structured according to a three-stage protocol, involving planning, conducting and reporting to ensure transparency and reproducibility. Quantitative bibliometric analysis and qualitative hierarchical thematic analysis are used to assess the evolution of research and to identify key themes and factors.FindingsThe study reveals an unbalanced research focus on developed economies and residential land in urban land value literature. A hierarchical framework categorizes 644 factors into 25 subthemes and 8 themes across physical dimensions (e.g. land attributes and structure attributes) and market dimensions (e.g. land market and macroeconomic conditions). Two primary estimation methods – regression and residual – are identified, each suitable based on data availability. The literature’s evolution is driven by advances in empirical methods. An extensive catalog of databases is compiled, and a corresponding menu of methods is discussed with a focus on empirical identification strategies.Research limitations/implicationsThe study is limited by the focus on urban land value and the exclusion of agricultural, recreational and transportation land. Future research should expand to other land types and integrate new data sources and advanced methodologies such as machine learning to enhance empirical robustness.Practical implicationsThe systematic review provides a foundation for practical applications and policy discussions on land value estimation and taxation. It offers a useful catalog of land value databases and a menu of land evaluation methods. They are useful for real estate businesses to perform accurate land evaluations and investment appraisals. They can also assist governments in determining precise land value for tax assessments and public policy formulation.Originality/valueThis paper is among the first to apply the SLR approach to urban land value – the price of an essential asset owned by households, businesses and governments. A key contribution is the identification of two distinct evolution patterns of literature: a “pine tree” pattern, showing linear, accumulative growth using homogeneous methodologies (e.g. regression methods) and a “palm tree” pattern, where diverse methods (e.g. residual methods) form independent branches. This analysis provides a new perspective on how methodological homogeneity influences the structure of research themes, offering insights into the dynamics of knowledge development in the field and in general.

In recent years, land prices in Germany have skyrocketed to levels that were hardly thought possible. This has particularly affected prospering cities, where price increases of more than 100 % have often been recorded since the turn of the millennium. The underlying causes are highly controversial. While some scholars point to the scarcity of developable land due to regulatory restrictions, others see the “financialization” of housing markets in the wake of the financial crisis and the massive influx of liquid capital into land and housing markets as the decisive driver. Against this background, this paper investigates the spatial patterns of land price dynamics in North Rhine-Westphalia during a phase of strong demographic and economic reurbanization. We used disaggregated data from the BORIS system for the years 2012 to 2024, which is available state-wide and georeferenced. Our empirical findings point to a significant trend of market polarization, with excessive growth rates in prospering metropolitan areas and real value losses in some rural areas. Overall, the paper offers new insights into the spatial patterns of urban land markets and possible driving factors explaining uneven developments.

Purpose This paper aims to build a set of long-term, geographically controlled land value indices for Santiago de Chile, with which to test land rent theory predictions regarding macroeconomic impacts. Design/methodology/approach This paper uses a geographic cluster approach to the Laspeyres estimator, weighted by the stock of available land plots and their market offers per zone, to create two quarterly land value indices for Gran Santiago during the period 1983Q4–2016Q2. Subsequently, this paper implements dynamic time series methods (Vector Error Correction) as a baseline to determine the effect of economic performance and interest rate on urban land values. Findings The two land value indices are correctly predicted by economic and interest rate shocks, as theoretically expected. In addition, this paper found that land values grew faster-than-predicted during the period of the so-called “Chilean Miracle” (1992–1998), a situation associated in the literature with worsened housing affordability and socio-spatial inequality. Originality/value The land value indices offer unprecedented time-series precision in tracking the long-term performance of real estate markets in a Latin American city, allowing us to produce short- and long-term (accumulative) time-series causality analyses.

Owing to the enhanced accessibility afforded by high-speed rail, the relationship between megacities and their neighboring cities has grown closer. Megacities exert a significant influence on the land use of neighboring cities. This study employs a spatial econometric model to investigate the direct impact and spatial spillover effects of high-speed rail on urban land values, based on urban panel data from China’s Yangtze River Delta region (2006-2020). The results revealed that shorter commuting times and improved frequency of service had a more substantial effect. Additionally, due to alterations in land values, there is a distinct preference tendency for urban land use attributes. Therefore, the city’s spatial organization has transformed, and its center of gravity has shifted as well. This study provides crucial theoretical justifications and empirical evidence to fill the gaps left by previous research on the effects of short-haul high-speed rail commuting on urban housing prices and land use. The study also offers valuable insights for strategic planning and implementation aimed at promoting urban development and urban agglomeration construction through HSR construction.

The 2015 Gorkha earthquake in Nepal caused significant property and life loss, triggering a large influx of international reconstruction aid. This paper investigates the spatial implications of this international aid, particularly in Lalitpur. It examines how aid from NGOs and bilateral and multilateral agencies affects urban spaces, including rent, land values, and infrastructure distribution. The study focuses on Wards hosting aid projects and personnel and compares these to earthquake-affected Wards without aid presence as a counterfactual.Two key points emerge: 1) The clustering of aid organization headquarters (operational presence) creates negative externalities, favoring a rentier class over equitable distribution of housing and infrastructure. 2) Aid-funded reconstruction projects (project presence) shift amenities and businesses, accelerating inequity in ways distinct from operational presence. Two Wards in Lalitpur show notable negative impacts, including rising rents, changes in small businesses, and a shift towards catering to the rentier class due to the effects of aid.The research provides policy recommendations for local governments and disaster management authorities in Nepal to address these unequal impacts. Recommendations include monitoring and evaluating aid effects over time, collaboration, and the promotion of transparency in urban development and fiscal resilience.

Transportation, decentralization, and path dependence: How did the old tramway shape Shanghai, China?

The spatial overlay effect of urban waterlogging risk and land use value