Urban Areas Research Articles

Reassessing urban-rural education disparities: evidence from England

ABSTRACT Rural-urban disparities in education in developed countries have received limited attention in recent years, and whether rural schools face additional disadvantages is controversial. This study examines the differences between urban and rural education in England using data from the 2019 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) for eighth-grade students, involving a sample of 3,365 pupils across 136 schools. Findings indicate the existence of hidden inequalities, particularly evident in the educational resources and sustainability of teaching teams of rural schools in England. Moreover, the study challenges previous assertions suggesting the disappearance of educational attainment gaps between urban and rural areas, revealing a negative association between attending rural schools and academic achievement in England, notably in mathematics. Despite modest explanatory power, this correlation remains after controlling for contextual variables. Therefore, this study calls for renewed attention to rural education at research, policy, and practice levels.

Violet Light Is Abundant Outdoors but Deficient Indoors in Modern Lifestyle in Tokyo

This study examines the role of violet light (VL) in preventing myopia progression, addressing a critical need in urban environments where VL exposure is limited. Recent research suggests that VL, within the 360–400 nm wavelength range, may reduce myopia risk. To investigate, we conducted spectroscopic measurements in various settings across Tokyo, quantifying VL irradiance in natural sunlight. The results showed high VL levels outdoors, averaging 583 μW/cm2 on sunny days and 271 μW/cm2 on cloudy days, leading to a weighted annual average of approximately 310 μW/cm2. In contrast, indoor environments lacked VL due to UV-blocking materials in windows, glasses, and lighting. This deficiency may contribute to the rising incidence of myopia, particularly in urban areas with reduced outdoor exposure. Our findings highlight the need for innovative solutions to mitigate VL deficiency indoors, such as optimizing architectural designs and artificial lighting to better incorporate VL. This study provides foundational insights for future interventions aimed at reducing myopia risk through improved indoor light environments.

Water Quality Index and the quality of freshwater resource uMhlathuze river, Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa: A Review

Abstract uMhlathuze River in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, is a critical freshwater resource supporting industrial, agricultural, and domestic activities. However, its water quality is under threat from various anthropogenic pressures. This review synthesises existing literature to assess the river’s water quality, focusing on key contaminants, spatial and temporal trends, ecological impacts, and socio-economic implications. Key pollutants identified include elevated levels of nitrates (>10 mg/L), phosphates (>2 mg/L), heavy metals such as lead (Pb > 0.01 mg/L) and chromium (Cr > 0.05 mg/L) (Nsibande et al. Afr. J. Aquat. Sci. 2024, 262–274, 3.), and microbial contaminants with faecal coliforms exceeding 1,000 CFU/100 mL (Mthembu et al., Afr. J. Microbiol. Res. 2012, 2020–2026, 9.). Seasonal variations exacerbate these issues, with higher pollutant loads observed during rainy periods due to increased runoff from industrial, agricultural, and urban areas. Figures illustrating contaminant trends by season or location could complement these findings. The degraded water quality has led to declines in biodiversity, including fish and aquatic macroinvertebrates, and poses significant public health risks for communities reliant on the river for drinking water and sanitation. Maps of pollution hotspots and biodiversity loss would aid in visualizing these impacts. Key knowledge gaps include inconsistent sampling methodologies, insufficient long-term data, and the absence of a region-specific Water Quality Index (WQI). This review highlights the need for standardised WQI frameworks, advanced monitoring technologies, and pollution tracking mechanisms to address these challenges. Additionally, socio-economic studies and community-based conservation initiatives are recommended to mitigate pollution impacts and improve water resource sustainability. These findings serve as a foundation for targeted research and policy actions to protect and sustainably manage the uMhlathuze River system.

Comparative analysis of individual-level and community-level approaches for achieving sustainable development goals for under-five mortality rate

Background: In 2022, 4.9 million children died worldwide before the age of five years. The UN General Assembly has set the target to reduce under-five child mortality rate (U5MR) to 25 deaths per 1,000 live births by 2030. However, the UN Inter-Agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation highlights that, without rapid action, many low and lower middle-income countries may fall short of this target, resulting in the loss of 35 million children under five years of age before 2030. In such a scenario, it is crucial to understand the determinants that contribute to the reduction of preventable child deaths. Design: Anonymized and publicly accessible data from the Indian National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) were used. The sample consisted of 724,115 women aged 15–49 years, categorized into urban and rural groups. Data on the number of community daycare centers, or Anganwadi centers, per state were obtained from the Ministry of Women and Child Development. For better analysis of data, the country was divided into regions, with union territories classified according to their geographical locations. Various statistical methods such as descriptive statistical analysis, correlation coefficient, and linear regression analysis were used. Results: Descriptive analysis showed that Central India had the highest U5MR (49.8%), despite having the second highest number of community daycare centers (74,510) in the country. The Spearman rank correlation analysis showed a significantly large positive relationship between community daycare centers (%) and U5MR (r = 0.521, p < 0. 001). Conversely, there was a significantly large negative relationship between women with internet access (%) and U5MR (r = -0.6908, p < 0. 001). The results from multiple linear regression showed b0 = 53.6807, b1 = -0.58788, and b2 = 0.77266, with an R 2 value of 0.5616 (p = 0). Additionally, simple linear regression analysis for the percentage of community daycare centers along with U5MR in children showed a beta coefficient (b) of 2.5767 (p < 0. 001), with an R 2 value of 0.2938. For the data on internet access to women (%) and U5MR, the beta coefficient (b) was -0.6759, the p value was 0, and the R 2 value was 0.5444. Conclusion: In comparison to the data from NFHS-4 (2015–16), there was a notable decrease in the U5MR in almost all states in the country. The study showed that urban women had greater access to the Internet than rural women. Furthermore, child mortality rates were higher in rural areas than in urban areas in every state. The enhanced access to health information through the Internet for urban women may have contributed to the lower child mortality rates observed in urban settings. Internet access for women at the individual level is significantly more effective in reducing the U5MR than the community-level approach of daycare centers.

Interactions between the autochthonous deer ked Lipoptena cervi and the alien L. fortisetosa (Diptera: Hippoboscidae) ectoparasites of Cervus elaphus in Italy: coexistence or competition?

Abstract The autochthonous Lipoptena cervi and the allochthonous Lipoptena fortisetosa in Cervus elaphus in Central/Northern Italy were studied during autumn and winter 2018–2020 in order to evaluate the possible interactions between the two parasite species and the possible influence of geographical parameters on their abundance. This survey could help disentangling whether the coexistence between the two species will be possible or the competitive exclusion of L. cervi is to be expected. The results show that L. cervi is influenced by host sex and age and is more abundant at higher altitudes, while L. fortisetosa is more abundant in lower altitudes and in southern/eastern areas. The interaction between the two species is evident and symmetrical but mild at the component community level, while at the infracommunity level an asymmetric competition has been evidenced by the displacement of L. cervi when L. fortisetosa is present in the same body location. Geographical clusters of L. fortisetosa are evident in plains near urbanized areas, while L. cervi distribution appeared more scattered in all the Apennine ridge. Our observations indicate that the two deer ked species not only can coinfect the same host population but also the same host individual, avoiding strong direct interaction and competitive exclusion. All the observed patterns reflect different adaptations to environmental conditions and possible strategies to minimize competition. However, longitudinal surveys are needed to evaluate if the observed pattern is a constant feature or a result of the sampling seasons.

Demographic, socioeconomic and regional disparities in the coverage of water, sanitation and hygiene facilities in four South Asian Countries

Background Ensuring an adequate water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) is crucial for upholding public health and achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDG-6). The main goal of this study was to review the existing WASH facilities, mapping for regional comparisons, and identify the significant socioeconomic and demographic factors associated with WASH facilities in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan. Methods This study employed a quantitative research design using the most recent Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) data from Afghanistan (2022–23, n = 23,213), Bangladesh (2019, n = 61,242), Nepal (2019, n = 12,655), and Pakistan (2017–19, n = 96,105). Data analysis was done using descriptive statistics and multivariate logistic regression model. Besides, spatial mapping was used for regional comparison, the Generalized Variance Inflation Factor (GVIF) was applied for checking multicollinearity, and the Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve was used to evaluate model performance. Results This study revealed substantial disparities in the coverage of WASH facilities across four countries. Nepal had the highest coverage (75.33%), followed by Pakistan (59.47%), Bangladesh (50.28%) and Afghanistan (33.54%). Wealthier households were associated with higher odds of WASH facilities compared to the poor: Afghanistan (aOR = 7.83; 95% CI: 6.58–9.32; p < 0.001), Bangladesh (aOR = 5.75; 95% CI: 5.34–6.20; p < 0.001), Nepal (aOR = 5.80; 95% CI: 4.52–7.44; p < 0.001), and Pakistan (aOR = 9.64; 95% CI: 8.79-10.58; p < 0.001). In addition, place of residence, education of household head, access to the media, age of household head, and family size emerged as significant determinants of WASH facilities across all four countries. Conclusion The findings suggest that wealthier households, those with educated heads, and those in urban areas have higher coverage of WASH facilities. To ensure adequate WASH facilities, policymakers should focus on rural areas, lower-income groups, less educated household heads, and should conduct awareness campaigns.

Community-Level Urban Vitality Intensity and Diversity Analysis Supported by Multisource Remote Sensing Data

Urban vitality serves as a crucial metric for evaluating sustainable urban development and the well-being of residents. Existing studies have predominantly focused on analyzing the direct effects of urban vitality intensity (VI) and its influencing factors, while paying less attention to the urban vitality diversity (VD) and its indirect impact mechanisms. Supported by multisource remote sensing data, this study establishes a five-dimensional urban vitality evaluation system and employs the Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Model (PLS-SEM) to quantify direct and indirect interrelationships between these multidimensional factors and VI/VD. The findings are as follows: (1) Spatial divergence between VI and VD: VI exhibited stronger clustering (I = 1.12), predominantly aggregating in central urban areas, whereas VD demonstrated moderate autocorrelation (I = 0.45) concentrated in mixed-use central or suburban zones. (2) Drivers of vitality intensity: VI are strongly associated with commercial density (β = 0.344) and transportation accessibility (β = 0.253), but negatively correlated with natural environment quality (r = −0.166). (3) Mechanisms of vitality diversity: VD is closely linked to public service (β = 0.228). This research provides valuable insights for city development and decision-making, particularly in strengthening urban vitality and optimizing urban functional layouts.

An efficient algorithm for pedestrian fall detection in various image degradation scenarios based on YOLOv8n

With the growing elderly population, especially in urban areas, pedestrian fall detection for the elderly has become a critical global concern. Existing pedestrian fall detection systems often suffer from low accuracy and poor performance under challenging conditions such as rain, snow, nighttime, or camera obstructions. To address these issues, this paper proposes an enhanced pedestrian fall detection algorithm called Pedestrian Chain-of-Thought Prompted Adaptive Enhancer YOLO (PCE-YOLO), based on YOLOv8n. Several improvements were made to YOLOv8n, including the integration of a Chain-of-Thought Prompted Adaptive Enhancer (CPA-Enhancer) module to boost detection performance in complex environments. Additionally, the Cross Stage Partial Bottleneck with 2 Convolution Block (C2f) was optimized to reduce computational load and parameter count without compromising performance, while the Inner Extended Intersection over Union (Inner-EIoU) loss function was employed to improve bounding box regression accuracy and speed. To validate the model’s effectiveness, a dataset of 7,782 pedestrian fall images was collected, and three degraded image datasets were generated to simulate real-world conditions. PCE-YOLO improved the mean Average Precision (mAP) by 4.52% compared to YOLOv8n on both original and degraded datasets, respectively. Moreover, it achieved a frame per second (FPS) rate of 210.5, making it suitable for real-time detection applications. The results demonstrate that PCE-YOLO significantly enhances detection accuracy and speed in various challenging environments, offering a robust solution for real-time pedestrian fall detection.

Monitoring air pollutants in urbanized hydrothermal areas: challenges and benefits of traditional measurement strategies

Carbon- and sulfur-bearing gases are emitted at relevant amounts from hydrothermal manifestations at Tivoli Terme (Latium, central Italy), where different potential anthropogenic contaminant sources also occur. This study presents a geochemical dataset including CO2, CH4, SO2, and H2S concentrations and δ13C-CO2 and δ13C-CH4 values measured in air at the center of Tivoli town. The main aim was to evaluate the impact on air quality of hydrothermal manifestations and anthropogenic activities employing a traditional stationary monitoring strategy. The analytical results reveal significant air contamination from both natural and anthropogenic emissions, although gas levels were below outdoor air quality thresholds. Carbon dioxide and CH4 were primarily linked to anthropogenic sources, while hydrothermal emissions played a secondary role. However, H2S concentrations up to 282 ppb highlighted a notable impact from hydrothermal emissions surrounding the measurement station, where SO4-rich pools are located. Nevertheless, the geochemical data did not provide a reliable estimate of the specific contributions from each source. The study identifies key limitations in relying on a single fixed monitoring station, as weather conditions highly influence it and cannot reliably capture the relative impacts of various sources across a broad area. Additionally, compositional and isotopic geochemical parameters often produce ambiguous results, complicating the differentiation of pollution sources. An integrated approach is recommended, combining mobile stations for periodic pollutant mapping with low-cost instruments deployed at strategic locations near potential sources and progressively farther away. This strategy could better track the spatial and temporal evolution of contaminant concentrations, addressing the shortcomings of current monitoring systems and enhancing mitigation efforts.

Bionomics and distribution of malaria vectors in Kisumu city, Western Kenya: implications for urban malaria transmission

BackgroundIncreasing unplanned urbanization in tropical Africa may create new niches for malaria vectors, raising transmission risk, yet control efforts focus on rural ecosystems. Understanding mosquito diversity, ecology and biting behaviour in urban areas is crucial for effective control. This study assessed Anopheles diversity, abundance, behaviour, and Plasmodium infection rates in Kisumu city, Kenya.MethodsIndoor and outdoor host-seeking and resting adult mosquitoes were collected using CDC miniature light traps (CDC-LT) and Prokopack aspirators along an urban–rural transect. Anophelines were identified morphologically, with Anopheles gambiae sensu lato (s.l.) and Anopheles funestus group further distinguished to siblings using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Sporozoite infection rates were determined using a multiplexed real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay.ResultsA total of 3,394 female Anopheles mosquitoes were collected: An. gambiae s.l. (68%), An. funestus s.l. (19.8%), Anopheles coustani (7.8%), Anopheles pharoensis (2.6%), Anopheles maculipalipis (1.6%), and Anopheles leesoni (0.2%). All six species were found in urban zone, but only three were in peri-urban and rural sites. Overall, urban collection accounted for 55.5% of mosquitoes, followed by peri-urban (30%) and rural sites (14.5%). Anopheles arabiensis dominated urban (84.3%) and peri-urban (89%) sites, while An. gambiae sensu stricto (s.s.) was predominant in rural zone (60.2%) alongside An. arabiensis (39.7%). Anopheles funestus was predominant in peri-urban (98.4%) and rural (85.7%) areas, while An. leesoni accounted for 1.6% and 14.3%, respectively. In urban areas, all An. funestus s.l. samples were An. funestus s.s.. Most (55.5%) of Anopheles mosquitoes were collected indoors, while secondary vectors were mainly outdoors. Overall, sporozoite rates were higher outdoors (3.5%) than indoors (1.45%) in rural areas. Indoor rates were 2.5% (An. funestus), 1.4% (An. gambiae s.s.), and 1% (An. arabiensis). Outdoors, An. gambiae had 5.3%, and An. arabiensis 2.1%. In peri-urban areas, An. gambiae had 2.3%. No sporozoites were found in urban samples.ConclusionThe study highlights a shift in Anopheles diversity towards urban areas with increased outdoor activity and outdoor malaria transmission in rural and peri-urban areas, underscoring the need for tools targeting outdoor-biting mosquitoes. The presence of An. funestus in urban settings emphasizes the need for sustained entomological surveillance to inform integrated vector control.

Detection of Nematode on Feces of Snail at Malang, East Java

Acathina fulica is a terrestrial mollusk that often invades terrestrial vegetation that has tropical and subtropical climates. Acathina fulica has been widely reported in environments as diverse as urban areas, forests, capoeiras, caatings, plantations, decomposing materials, savannahs and vegetable gardens. Soil is source of food and a defense strategy for A. fulica, therefore it has an important role for them. Therefore, A. fulica may be host several species of nematodes. Microscopic examination of snails A. fulica fecal samples in Cemorokandang Village, Malang City using the native method aimed to detect Rhabditis spp. The results showed that 14 (12.5%) out of 112 samples contained Rhabditis spp. The genus rhabditis belongs to the Rhabditidae family and is one of the free-living nematodes. This species has long been known and of concern in the veterinary world. The genus rhabditis has been reported to have infected humans and have been isolated from urine samples, vaginal swab, and human stool. The research was conducted in the dry season with low rainfall. Nematode of the genus Rhabditis spp. can be naturally found in humid places and decaying organic matter.

Late diagnosis of breast cancer in a hospital setting in Ouagadougou in 2024: patient characteristics and associated factors

Background: Breast cancer, like many other noncommunicable diseases, remains a public health problem today. Although the disease is more common in people over 50, younger women are also affected. The chances of following this disease depend on the stage at which it is diagnosed, since the earlier the diagnosis, the greater the chances of survival. The aim of this study was to determine the factors associated with late diagnosis of breast cancer among women in hospital settings in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso) in 2024. Methods: This was a cross-sectional analytical study that took place over a period of six months, from February 2 to July 31, 2024, in university hospitals in the city of Ouagadougou. The study included women with confirmed breast cancer. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SSP) software. Results: The study involved 226 women. Among them, the 40-49 age group was the most represented at 39.3%. In addition, 33.63% had a secondary education. More than half (79.65%) lived in urban areas. The frequency of late diagnosis was 32.74% [IC95% (0.674-0.914)]. The factors associated with late diagnosis of breast cancer were the environment in which the patient lived (OR=0.08; p=0.001), The first resort, including traditional medicine (OR=106; p<0.001) and insufficient symptom awareness (OR=4.63; p=0.001). Conclusions: These results reflect a constructive dialogue between traditional and modern medicine, enabling traditional practitioners to be trained to recognize the early signs of breast cancer and to refer patients rapidly to the appropriate health centers for treatment.

Qualitative exploration of patient and caregiver experiences of bowel cancer care in Wales: from diagnosis to aftercare

IntroductionWales has higher rates of bowel cancer incidence and mortality than other UK nations, with over 2300 new cases and 900 deaths annually. Regional disparities in bowel cancer mortality underscore...

Effect of India’s flagship conditional maternity benefit scheme on utilization of maternal and child health services: evidence from a statewide evaluation study

BackgroundThe Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY) is India’s flagship Maternity Benefit Programme to improve maternal nutrition and child health. This study evaluates the functional status of the scheme, knowledge regarding the scheme and its effect on pattern of service utilization in a north Indian state.MethodsA three-pronged mixed-methods evaluation including household survey of beneficiary and non-beneficiary women, in-depth interviews of key stakeholders (district and state level program managers, program implementers and frontline workers) and review of secondary data from the PMMVY Common Application Software and state PMMVY dashboard was done. Household survey covered 1290 women, and 70 in-depth interviews were held with eligible women, and PMMVY managerial and implementation staff. Quantitative data was analysed using SPSS version 22.0, qualitative data was analysed thematically and triangulated with quantitative results for effective analysis and conclusion. The study received ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board of IIHMR Delhi.ResultsA strong political commitment with requisite systems and resources across all levels was observed. Coverage of PMMVY was less in urban areas (53.1% as compared to overall coverage of 95.9%). Knowledge of the scheme was high among both beneficiary and non-beneficiary women (97.8% beneficiary women and 94.2% non-beneficiary women). Utilization of Maternal and Child Health (MCH) services were significantly poorer among non-beneficiary women for four antenatal check-ups (OR 0.74, 95% CI 0.55–0.99, p = 0.04), childbirth registration (OR 0.28, 95% CI 0.18–0.45, p < 0.001) and child immunization (OR 0.43, 95% CI 0.33–0.55, p < 0001). However, certain operational challenges were found related to beneficiary enrolment and use of PMMVY software, and a gap in intended and actual use of PMMVY incentive was observed (26.2% beneficiary women had spent the cash incentive on needs not related to nutrition or health).ConclusionDespite operational challenges, PMMVY has been effective in improving the utilization of health services like antenatal check-ups, childbirth registration and child immunization. The benefits of the scheme may be maximized by addressing those limitations in its delivery.

Diversity of Plasmodium Species in Patients Attending Public Health Institution in Doma, Nassarawa-Eggon and Kokona Local Government of Nasarawa State

Malaria remains a significant health challenge in Nigeria and millions of people are still at risk of contracting the parasite. This research determined the diversity of Plasmodium species in patients attending public health institutions of Nasarawa State with respect to their age, gender, occupation and risk factors of infection. A total of 1200 blood samples were collected through venous puncture from consenting patients attending the hospitals and analyzed using two malaria diagnosis methods that is, Giemsa stained blood film microscopy and Rapid Diagnostic Tests (RDTs). Microscopy had 62.5% while RDTs had 59.7% positive malaria cases. The age group with highest infection were 11-20 years (18.9%) and the least was 51 and above 8.5%. Females (54.1%) were more infected than males having 45.8%, (p&lt;0.05). Farmers were the most infected (26.0%) and the least infected were students with a prevalence rate of 16.66%, (p&lt;0.05). Plasmodium falciparum was highest (78.2%) followed by P. malariae (20.2%), the least species found was P. ovale (4.1%). Based on risk factors associated with malaria, patients who reside in rural areas are more infected (54.9%) than those who stay in urban area (45.1%), those who use ITNs (26.9%) were less infected than those who do not (73.1%); the patients who wear protective clothing at night (29.4) were less infected than those who did not (70.5) and those who use insect repellant (33.9%) were less infected than those who did not (66.1%). There was a statistically significant difference in relation to these factors (p&lt;0.05). A malaria prevalence rate of 62.5% is considered extremely high and should be a cause for significant concern and urgent intervention efforts and malaria control measures by the Government should be encouraged. These include campaigns promoting the use of insecticide treated nets and the maintenance of good personal and environmental hygiene.

Staying or moving? Residential reasoning among older adults living in rural and urban disadvantaged areas

Staying or moving? Residential reasoning among older adults living in rural and urban disadvantaged areas

Ecological assessment and sustainable utilization of plant resources in the periphery of George, Garden route area, South Africa.

Ecological assessment and sustainable utilization of plant resources in the periphery of George, Garden route area, South Africa.

A Study of Investor’s Preferences in Post Office Saving Schemes A Comparative Analysis of Rural and Urban areas of Himachal Pradesh

A Study of Investor’s Preferences in Post Office Saving Schemes A Comparative Analysis of Rural and Urban areas of Himachal Pradesh

Co-designing of public space for urban design students using citizen-generated data

ABSTRACT This study describes the co-design process, which includes the citizens’ spatial experiences, needs, and wishes, through participatory digital design tools in urban design. The paper draws on a case study for co-design practices for leftover public space; Re-shaping Küçük Park urban void in Bornova, Izmir, Turkey. The methodology used in this study is a further improvement of ‘Citizen Design Science’ and its tool Qua-Kit (a map-based e-participation tool), which originated from Future Cities Laboratory (FCL) in ETH Zurich. The toolkit allows users to move geometries in given urban spaces and enables non-expert participants to express their ideas for the urban area through design. Departing from conventional urban design approaches, the shaping of the urban realm became a democratic process in which all stakeholders participated as co-designers. The study utilises objective and subjective design data, offering a novel perspective on urban design education and the profession. The educational experiment showed that participants could contribute their experiences and opinions through active design tools and the development process in co-designing public spaces.

Impact of COVID-19 on Subjective Well-being and Community Im-portance-Performance in Sanitation Programs in Jakarta, Indonesia

This research investigates the critical impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on subjective well-being and evaluates community responses to sanitation programs within three urban villages in Koja, Jakarta. Utilizing Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA), the study comprehensively assesses community perceptions and engagement levels with key sanitation aspects including access to defecation and treatment, treatment quality, aesthetic quality, monitoring practices, and socialization efforts in drainage and treatment. Advanced statistical models, such as probit and logit regressions, are employed to explore how demographic variables like housing stability, gender, and active involvement in community-based sanitation programs influence these perceptions and actions toward sanitation. The findings reveal significant disparities in satisfaction levels with existing sanitation services, pinpointing areas such as monitoring and treatment services that are critically underperforming and require immediate improvement. This study highlights the urgency of addressing these issues in the face of the ongoing pandemic, reflecting on the novel insights into the complex dynamics between demographic factors and the effectiveness of sanitation programs. Our approach aims to elevate the standard of sanitation services to enhance the resilience and well-being of urban communities against the multifaceted impacts of COVID-19. These strategic improvements are vital for sustaining public health and promoting a safer, healthier living environment in densely populated urban areas, where effective sanitation is crucial for mitigating health risks and enhancing public safety.