Rapid urbanization in India has resulted in extensive peri-urban expansion characterized by unplanned land development, infrastructure deficits, and speculative land markets. Public investments in transport and infrastructure significantly increase land values in these areas; however, the benefits of such investments are largely captured privately, while public agencies face financial constraints. Land Value Capture (LVC) mechanisms provide a means to recover a portion of publicly generated land value increments and reinvest them in urban infrastructure and planned development. This study examines LVC as a spatial planning tool rather than merely a fiscal mechanism, with specific emphasis on its role in managing peri-urban expansion. A qualitative and comparative methodology is adopted using secondary data, policy review, and case study analysis of international and Indian examples, including São Paulo, Germany, Mohali, and Bengaluru. The findings indicate that land-based LVC instruments such as land pooling and land readjustment are particularly effective in peri-urban contexts as they enable infrastructure provision before development and reduce speculative growth. The paper proposes a strategic framework for integrating LVC into peri-urban planning in India to support infrastructure-led, equitable, and sustainable urban expansion

The Batur Caldera area in Kintamani holds significant potential as a tourism destination due to its unique blend of natural beauty, cultural heritage, and preserved local wisdom. Key attractions such as Lake Batur and Mount Batur, supported by growing tourism infrastructure like hotels and coffee shops, have contributed to local economic growth and job creation. In particular, coffee shops serve not only as leisure spots but also as social spaces that promote local culture and enhance the destination's image. However, the unplanned development of such facilities has led to environmental and spatial planning issues, including traffic congestion caused by roadside parking and landslide risks due to construction on steep slopes without adequate geological consideration. These challenges highlight the need for a comprehensive assessment that goes beyond economic and tourism aspects to include environmental sustainability, safety, and spatial planning. This study aims to map the distribution of tourism accommodation facilities, particularly coffee shops, along the Batur Caldera corridor using geospatial analysis, in order to inform sustainable and risk-aware spatial development strategies.

Musanze District is an ecologically fragile but yet important region in Rwanda due to its rich biodiversity and critical ecosystem functions. However, over the past 20years, the district has experienced major land use and land cover (LULC) changes, affecting its ecosystem service values (ESVs). This study analyzed the dynamics in land use and its associated ecosystem service values in Musanze District. The former was achieved through a supervised classification of Landsat satellite images (2004-2024) in ArcGIS 10.8, while the ESVs were estimated through a meta-analytical function transfer method calibrated with East African data. Findings disclosed a 22% increase in cropland and a 39% decrease in forest cover. The total ecosystem service values declined, from 215,680.24 million US$ in 2004 to 98,699.69 million US$ in 2024, a reduction of 54.24%, with a sharp decline in specific services. Food provision dropped from US$129.97 million to US$92.17 million, and pollination declined from US$381.75 million to US$270.72 million. Forest loss was a major driver of reduced food production, pollination, and climate regulation. Although the correlation between LULC and ESV changes was strong (r = 0.87), the relationship was not statistically significant (p = 0.13), reinforcing the view that ESV dynamics cannot be explained by LULC change alone but require consideration of broader socio-ecological factors. The study highlights the ecological cost of unplanned agricultural expansion and urban development. Weak zoning, urban sprawl, and poor enforcement of environmental regulations have worsened ecosystem degradation. To reverse this trend, Rwanda must promote sustainable farming, ecological restoration, and integrated urban planning. This study pioneers quantifying ecosystem service losses in Musanze using regionally calibrated data.

Urban heat island (UHI), one of the critical consequences of climate change, represent a significant environmental challenge arising from physical interventions during urbanisation. Unplanned and dense urban development, the extensive use of heat-retaining construction materials, and a lack of green spaces intensify this phenomenon, increasing cities’ vulnerability to heatwaves. In this context, examining research on UHI and evaluating it from a disaster management perspective is essential for developing a more comprehensive approach. This study systematically analyses existing architectural research on UHI through bibliometric methods and explores their links with disaster management. It also identifies data, research limitations, methodological approaches, and potential areas for further development. The findings indicate that UHI research within architecture has been addressed within a relatively narrow scope, with most studies focusing on the mitigation and preparedness phases of disaster management. In contrast, studies concerning the immediate post-disaster emergency response phase, which begins immediately after the disaster and aims to rapidly reduce short-term impacts, remain limited. The final section presents strategic recommendations to enhance the response phase in architecture. This innovative research, by relating UHI to disaster management, contributes to the understanding of architectural studies, highlights gaps in the literature, and lays a foundation for future investigations. Practical Application The limited research on the urban heat island effect which are increases cities vulnerability to heatwaves and its insufficient integration into disaster management shows significant gap in the field. This article reviews the current data, existing limitations, research approaches connection among the disaster management and urban heat island, and offers recommendations for potential developments. The study is carries big important for supporting future research on the heat island phenomenon by designers, engineers, climate scientists, and academics.

Meda Ela (Mid Canal), a small but ecologically significant tributary of the Mahaweli River in Kandy, Sri Lanka, is under increasing pressure from urbanization and high population density. This study examines the impacts of unplanned urban development on water quality in this tropical, mountainous urban area. Temporal and spatial water samples were collected along the tributary and analyzed for key chemical parameters, including dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD), nitrite (NO₂⁻), nitrate (NO₃⁻), and phosphate (PO₄³⁻). Results indicate critically low DO levels (<2.0 mg L⁻¹) in densely urbanized sections. Nitrite concentrations exhibit a strong negative correlation with DO, while nitrate shows a strong positive correlation, likely reflecting denitrification by facultative bacteria under anoxic conditions. Principal component analysis identifies the fourth sampling location (the first underground section) as the most polluted site. Downstream trends reveal increasing concentrations of most pollution indicators, except nitrate, accompanied by decreasing DO. Additionally, the stream suffers from high levels of solid waste and aesthetic degradation. These findings highlight the urgent need for sustainable urban planning and effective wastewater management to preserve this tributary’s ecological integrity.

Abstract This paper explores how Athens's urban spaces, shaped by historical processes of rapid growth, unplanned development, and urban decay, have actively fostered a vibrant street art scene and related subversive practices during Greece's economic crisis. Based on ethnographic fieldwork (2015–2019) in central neighbourhoods like Exarchia and Psirri, it argues that the city's irregular urban landscape and contested public spaces empower heterotopic practices such as street art, squatting, and grassroots activism. Framed by Lefebvre's spatial triad and Foucault's heterotopia, urban space emerges as an active agent in shaping social resistance against homogenising forces. Amid the socioeconomic turmoil of the crisis, Athens became a ‘graffiti paradise’, where artists and collectives reclaimed derelict spaces, challenged gentrification and resisted control. Ultimately, the paper illustrates how urban space and social action intertwine to produce a dynamic, resilient, and anti‐institutional art scene on Europe's periphery, highlighting the role of urban space as a social agent.

This study compares the Urban Heat Island (UHI) phenomenon in two Indian metropolitan cities: Lucknow and Delhi. This study helps to understand the comparative impact of urbanisation on the UHI effect in mid-sized and large urban cities using multi-temporal satellite data and index-based Analysis. MODIS satellite data were used to examine the UHI, while Landsat 8 data helped extract the land surface features of both cities. Various indices, such as NDVI, MBI, MNDWI, and NDBaI, were utilised to study the land surface characteristics of the study area using GIS-based tools and methods. The study findings indicate that about 18.15% of Lucknow is classified as a High Potential Urban Heat Island (UHI) Zone, compared to approximately 17.17% in Delhi. Land surface temperatures (LST) in Lucknow rose from 38.11°C and 30.41°C in 2000 to 46.17°C and 39.15°C in 2023. Similarly, in Delhi, LST values increased from 38.35°C and 24.49°C in 2000 to 47.27°C and 32.93°C in 2023. These zones are typically found in locations with high built-up land density and unplanned development activities. The study identifies a negative correlation between the UHI and the presence of green and blue spaces, which can help reduce the intensity of the UHI. The research emphasises the importance of understanding and managing the UHI effect in highly urbanised areas, as this knowledge will assist policymakers and stakeholders in enhancing livability and sustainability within cities.

Lakshmisagar, located in the Simlapal Block of Bankura district, West Bengal, is a site of significant archaeological and cultural importance. This study explores the geo-cultural landscape of Lakshmisagar through the lens of Jain relics, particularly sculptural and architectural remains that date back to the early medieval period. By examining iconographic features and historical contexts, this paper highlights the syncretism between Jainism and local religious practices. Furthermore, the study incorporates the broader narrative of heritage loss due to unplanned development, such as dam constructions and mining in the Damodar Valley region, which have submerged or destroyed many Jain and Buddhist sites in adjacent areas like Purulia, Singhbhum, and Dhanbad. Through this research, Lakshmisagar emerges not only as a spiritual nucleus but also as a testimony to the cultural continuity and vulnerability of sacred landscapes in eastern India.

Cultural heritage is a fundamental component of the identity and collective memory of societies. However, population growth, unplanned development, climate change, natural disasters, and inadequate conservation efforts pose serious threats to its preservation. Sustainable conservation requires multi-component and interdisciplinary approaches. Geographic Information System (GIS) has emerged as effective tool for mapping, analyzing, conserving, and monitoring cultural heritage. This study aims to examine the role of GIS in the conservation-focused evaluation of cultural heritage elements at different scales, such as cultural landscapes and historical buildings. Case studies from various regions of Türkiye are analyzed to evaluate GIS contributions in tracking temporal changes through historical aerial photos, old and current maps, and land data; conducting integrity and authenticity analyses; and informing conservation strategies. The findings indicate that GIS supports interdisciplinary, holistic, and multi-dimensional approaches to cultural heritage conservation. This study intends to offer a methodological framework for future conservation-oriented research.

This study explores urban identity through theoretical and practical dimensions to preserve and enhance the unique characteristics of cities. Rapid urbanization, unplanned development, and homogenization threaten urban identity and undermine the sense of belonging. The research examines the elements that influence urban identity and assesses existing literature on identity loss and its implications for urban planning. By integrating theoretical discourse with an applied case study in Ataşehir, this study aims to provide a practical tool for urban planning processes. The research methodology builds on Mansour, Alves, and Costa’s comprehensive approach to assessing urban identity, tested in a real-world urban context. Findings will provide concrete insights into the strengths and weaknesses of the methodology while guiding planners in preserving urban identity. The study enhances the literature by bridging theoretical and practical perspectives, emphasizing urban identity as a dynamic and evolving concept.

Urban structural fires pose a significant threat to life, property, and urban sustainability, particularly in rapidly growing cities like Hyderabad, India. These fires are often exacerbated by factors such as high population density, unplanned development, aging infrastructure, and inadequate fire safety regulations. Additionally, the increasing demand for electricity, mixed land use, and seasonal climatic variations contribute to heightened fire risks. This study assesses the spatial and temporal distribution of urban fire incidents within the Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC) region from 2017 to 2024. Fire incidents were aggregated using a 50-meter threshold, and spatial autocorrelation analysis confirmed that these incidents are significantly clustered. Hotspot analysis using the Getis-Ord Gi* statistic yielded GiZ-scores ranging from –3.62 to 6.65. This allowed for the delineation of fire risk zones by integrating a continuous fire risk surface—generated through Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) interpolation—with census ward boundaries using zonal statistics. From 2017 to 2024, there have been a total of 4406 structural fires in the GHMC region. The temporal analysis indicates that fire incidents peak in late winter and early summer, specifically in March and April, accounting for 12 to 12.5% of annual cases. In contrast, fire incidents decline during the monsoon months, with only 4.8 to 6.2% of cases occurring during this period. Furthermore, the analysis of fire causation indicates that careless smoking (41.9%) and electrical faults (39.1%) are the primary drivers of these events. An evaluation of fire station responses, based on State Fire Advisory Committee guidelines, shows that while 52.4% of incidents occur within the Immediate Response Zone (up to 1.8 km), 18.7% of the GHMC area falls within Delayed Response Zones (beyond 5 km), suggesting critical gaps in emergency coverage. The Central, North, and South Zones exhibit the highest concentrations of incidents, with 35 wards classified as very high risk, collectively housing approximately 1.3 million residents with population densities exceeding 17,000 people per sq km. These findings underscore the need for strategic interventions, such as repositioning or adding fire stations in high-risk areas, enhancing electrical safety protocols, implementing targeted public awareness campaigns, and adopting climate-responsive urban planning. By integrating geospatial analytics with policy insights, this research provides a replicable framework for improving fire resilience in Hyderabad and similar rapidly urbanizing regions, aligning with Sustainable Development Goal 11 and India’s Smart Cities Mission.

Urban expansion in peri-urban areas like Badagry, Lagos State, Nigeria, has intensified challenges related to unplanned development, land use conflicts, and regulatory non-compliance. This study evaluates the extent of residential building compliance with zoning and development control guidelines across five communities in Badagry, Ibereko, Imeke, Ajara Torikoh, Aradagun, and Ajara Topa, using a quantitative questionnaire-based survey. A total of 313 respondents were sampled proportionally from these areas, with data analyzed via descriptive statistics and mean score comparisons (Likert scale analysis). Key compliance indicators included zoning designation, building height, setbacks, and floor area ratio (FAR). Results revealed moderate to high self-reported compliance (grand mean = 3.36), with the highest adherence to height restrictions (mean = 3.49) and the lowest to zoning clarity (mean = 3.32). While respondents generally affirmed conformity to regulations, disparities emerged across communities, with Aradagun (26.52% of respondents) and Imeke (23.00%) showing higher engagement. The findings align with literature highlighting partial compliance in Nigerian urban areas, where major violations are avoided but minor infractions persist due to weak enforcement and limited public awareness. However, self-reported data may overstate actual compliance, underscoring the need for physical audits and GIS validation. The study concludes that while regulatory awareness exists, effective urban governance in Badagry requires enhanced public sensitization, streamlined permit processes, and stricter enforcement. Recommendations include community-inclusive planning, capacity building for local agencies, and digitized monitoring systems to foster sustainable development.

Indonesia's coastal areas hold great potential in terms of economy, ecology, and social. However, unplanned development and excessive exploitation of resources have caused serious environmental damage, such as pollution, abrasion, and degradation of mangrove and coral reef ecosystems. This article discusses the main forms and causes of coastal environmental damage and outlines effective strategies and solutions in realizing sustainable development. The approach used is integrated and participatory, with an emphasis on the importance of synergy between sectors, community involvement, ecosystem conservation, regulatory enforcement, and the implementation of the blue economy. The results of the discussion show that the success of coastal development depends on cross-party collaboration and consistent implementation of sustainable principles. The obligation of long-term commitment so that development is not only beneficial for the current generation but also ensures commitment to future generations.

Urbanization comprises planned infrastructure development to cater to the growing population and economic activities by ensuring efficient and sustainable spatial land use, creating a liveable environment. A well-planned urban development improves infrastructure, healthcare, education, economic activities, and the urban environment; fast or unplanned development may lead to unfavourable changes such as environmental pollution, traffic congestion, insufficient or excess housing, and informal encroachments of natural habitats. Urban developmental activities need greater use of natural resources like water and land. This may strain the limited resources. Key objective was to understand the impact of different aspects of urbanization and actions taken by the local governing bodies under various national schemes and policies on the water quality of an urban lake. Published literature on physicochemical and biological parameters of Shahpura Lake water and water quality index were comprehended to identify the longitudinal water quality. Developmental activities in Bhopal, India are still in a nascent phase. In 2016, 'City of Lakes' Bhopal was included in the 'Smart Cities Mission'. Hence, an attempt has been made to understand how urban development has impacted this Lake situated within the city. The Shahpura Lake, a rain-fed lake, continuously receive sewage. Also, the recently increased urban developmental activities have put tremendous pressure on its water quality. It was observed that the local urban bodies’ have continuously made efforts to improve the quality of lake water. Marginal improvements are seen in the lake water quality in recent years, but due to the continuous inflow of sewage, the lake remains moderately to heavily polluted. The lake restoration efforts should also focus on the nutrient enrichment. The study points out that planning and management strategies specific to the lake and combined efforts by all the stakeholders are needed.

The study critically examines the geography of rural settlement patterns in Zimbabwe. The population of Zimbabwe remains, in spatial terms, largely rural, with most of the people living in areas that lack clear spatial planning. Zimbabwe has experienced unprecedented illegal sale of state land by land barons (commonly called, in colloquial vernacular parlance, Sabhuku deals), who exercise authority, be it traditional or state authority. The study problematises the lack of spatial planning and control of rural settlement development as Zimbabwe continues to experience unplanned development of settlements. The research adopts a qualitative research methodology as the approach best explains social facts without reducing them into codes and statistics. The research utilises a case-study research methodological design. It uses secondary information as a method of data collection, using journals and news reports. It utilises thematic data analysis. The research findings reveal that the geography of rural settlement patterns in Zimbabwe bears a colonial legacy, with nucleated rural designs being one of the colonial settlement patterns. The study shows that scattered rural settlement patterns in Zimbabwe are a result of the land reform programme that aimed to address colonial legacies in post-colonial Zimbabwe. The research concludes that the Zimbabwean rural settlement is an ambivalent balance between colonial legacies and post-colonial ambitions to address inequalities by creating scattered rural patterns to address nucleated settlements. The research recommends policies that address land barons and land use changes.

Urban flooding is a critical and recurring challenge in India, driven by rapid urbanization, unplanned development, and increasing extreme weather events. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of urban flooding in Indian cities, highlighting key causes, assessment methodologies, governance gaps, and future directions for resilience-building. The study explores case studies from major cities such as Mumbai, Chennai, and Bengaluru, and underrepresented smaller cities like Gorakhpur, emphasizing the unique challenges faced by these regions. The review reveals that while technical tools such as GIS, remote sensing, and hydrological models are extensively applied for flood risk assessment, socioeconomic dimensions, particularly the vulnerabilities of marginalized communities, remain inadequately addressed. Emerging technologies such as IoT, artificial intelligence, and machine learning demonstrate significant potential for real-time monitoring and predictive modeling but are underutilized in Indian cities. Nature-based solutions (NBS), such as wetland restoration and green infrastructure, offer sustainable flood mitigation options but lack integration into urban planning frameworks. In addition, governance challenges, including fragmented institutional coordination and weak enforcement of policies, exacerbate the impact of urban flooding. The findings highlight critical research gaps, including the underrepresentation of smaller urban centers, insufficient socio-economic inclusion, and the absence of multi-hazard frameworks. The review recommends localized and tailored approaches, stronger adoption of emerging technologies, integration of NBS and strengthened governance to address these challenges. A shift from reactive flood management to proactive and holistic resilience strategies is essential for mitigating future flood risks and ensuring sustainable urban development in India. This study serves as a foundation for policymakers, urban planners, and researchers to design context-specific solutions, fostering urban resilience against the increasing threats posed by flooding and climate change. . KEYWORDS :Urban flooding, Resilience, Hydrological modeling, GIS, Climate change, Disaster management

The present study is focused on the estimation of Land Surface Temperature (LST) and its relationship with three Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) indices--Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Normalised Difference Water Index (NDWI), and Normalised Difference Built-up Index (NDBI) in Raiganj Municipality, India. Landsat-5 TM (2001 & 2011) and Landsat-8 OLI (2021) satellite images were used, processed, and analyzed in the ArcGIS. The study observed that the values of LST and NDBI were increased by +0.9˚C and +0.71, and the values of NDVI and NDWI were decreased by -0.20 and -0.34 during 2001- 2021. The highest LST is observed over the built-up spaces and the lowest over vegetation cover and water bodies. The result indicates LST has a significant positive correlation with NDBI and a negative correlation with NDVI and NDWI. LST is increased due to dramatic changes in LULC especially in unplanned infrastructural development and losses in green and blue spaces.

A disaster is a significant disruption in the normal functioning of the natural life of a public or society, leading to widespread socio-psychological, physical, economic, or environmental losses. It occurs when a hazard breaks out in a vulnerable population and harms them. Nepal ranks among the most natural hazard-prone nations globally regarding earthquakes and hazards led by climate change, like heavy rainfall, landslides, floods, droughts, etc. Its vulnerability is largely attributed to rapid urbanization and unplanned rural development in its fragile land. These trends have intensified exposure to risks for a growing population segment, as emergency services' weak capacity to respond effectively. The absence of strong disaster management frameworks at both local and national levels, insufficient legislation related to disaster mitigation and urban planning, and inadequate public awareness and community preparedness may be the factors contributing. The geological situation and inadequacies have not only escalated the frequency and intensity of hazards but have also represented missed opportunities to foster resilient and safer communities. Applying qualitative descriptive analysis, this study aims to explain the political economy of disaster with special reference to the current earthquake (Gorkha earthquake 2015 and earthquake struck in mid-Western Nepal in November 2023) disaster in Nepal. The study found that, as the geophysical processes of the natural hazard cannot be changed, integrating mitigation components and techniques is the key to reducing vulnerability. Although natural calamities have no class or group favoritism, evidence shows that the poor and marginal people, who are disproportionately affected by disaster, are bonded by rescue, relief, and recovery. Growing evidence indicates that some disaster-affected people face challenges in resuming normal life several months after the disaster. The study concludes that well-preparedness for response to the probable disaster and comprehensive planning with sufficient resources are critical for post-disaster reconstruction to ensure effective and equitable recovery.

The issue of developing the Kuala Bubon mangrove forest in West Aceh as an ecotourism destination has emerged and is widely discussed in the public sphere, gaining much sympathy and support from the community, considering the forest’s high biodiversity of flora and fauna. However, ecotourism activities, if not properly managed, can pose a serious threat to the sustainability of the ecosystem, such as unplanned infrastructure development that damages the habitats of various flora and fauna. Therefore, ecotourism needs to be managed effectively through pre-ecotourism studies, particularly the design of sustainable infrastructure spatial planning. The goal of this research is to create a site plan for sustainable ecotourism infrastructure integrated with the mangrove ecosystem. This design ensures that the negative impacts of infrastructure development in ecotourism areas can be minimized through the application of sustainable strategies and practices. The stages of this research include: 1. Documenting the potential of natural resources as ecotourism attractions and ecological conditions, 2. Mapping spatial data on ecotourism potential using GIS applications, 3. Designing spatial infrastructure for supporting ecotourism by considering the needs of ecotourism and selecting areas that do not harm the habitats of flora and fauna using AutoCAD. The research was conducted in the Kuala Bubon mangrove forest, West Aceh, from July to August 2024. The results of the research identified six ecotourism potential points, including: 1) Ecotourism boat tours for flora and fauna observation, 2) Open-air camping ecotourism, 3) Fishing ecotourism, 4) Birdwatching ecotourism, 5) Recreational boating ecotourism, and 6) Sunset ecotourism with a coffee shop and heron watching. The spatial planning of ecotourism infrastructure becomes crucial as the foundation for sustainable ecotourism development.

Aim: Rapid urban and unplanned development and increased construction have significantly altered the surface coverage of many developing cities triggering environmental hazards with severe human health and environmental consequences. This study examines the impact of unplanned urban drainage systems on the environment and public health in Buea, Cameroon, to identify key challenges and propose sustainable solutions. Methods: A mixed-methods design was used. 300 semi-structured questionnaires were administered to a sample selected by simple random sample from a population of 40,073. Field observations of 30 drainage systems, measuring their depth and width to assess runoff evacuation effectiveness against international standards, were conducted using measuring tapes and GPS for spatial data collection. In addition to purposive face-to-face interviews held with 15 key officials from the departments of urban planning and housing, environmental engineering, urban development, water management, and environmental protection of government-related delegations of ministries, parastatals and the municipal council, secondary data were gathered from diverse sources including council reports, news outlets, and academic literature. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics (percentages and frequencies and chi-square) via Microsoft Excel and SPSS (Version 23.0) while qualitative interview data underwent thematic content analysis. Results revealed that 85% of respondents expressed dissatisfaction with the urban drainage system, citing poor infrastructure, inadequate waste management, rapid population growth, and government inaction as key issues. Results: Major environmental consequences identified include stream pollution, soil erosion, and ecosystem degradation, correlating with increased reports of waterborne diseases among the population. The correlation values on the relationship between poor drainage facilities and environmental challenges and health effects if the residents were very strong and positive as indicated by (P Value=0.911 and P Value 0.815) respectively. The measurements on drainage capacity indicated significant deviations from recommended standards, hindering effective runoff evacuation. Conclusion: The findings emphasize a critical urban drainage crisis in Buea, demanding immediate and integrated action from stakeholders. Recommendations: The study recommends increased investment in infrastructure and reconstruction, stringent monitoring of the environment. Rigorous enforcement of urban planning policies with heavy fines for defaulters should be adopted as an immediate priority and public awareness campaigns on environmental sustainability (most urgent). Additionally, establishing partnerships with local and international agencies can improve drainage management and environmental resilience. Other African cities should adopt options for sustainable urban development provided in this study.