University Of Gujrat Research Articles

Analyzing the Generic Structure Potential of Admission Notifications of Universities of Pakistan

This paper investigates the generic structural potential of admission notifications of four Pakistani universities: University of Central Punjab, University of Gujrat, University of Sargodha, and University of Education Lahore. Total forty admission notifications are selected for the genre analysis in light of systemic functional linguistics. Halliday and Hasan (1989 concept of “Generic Structural Potential (GSP)” for genre analysis, served as the theoretical framework for this study. This study highlights that the admission notifications analyzed has six obligatory elements: Logo, University Name, Announcement, Respective Department, Programs Offered, and Call info and five Optional elements: Admission Schedule, Instructions, Information desk, Why Choose Us? and Scholarship and Discounts. The study posits that the GSP of advertisements of admission notifications of universities in Pakistan could be cataloged as [L^UN^]A^RD^PO^[(AS)^(I).(ID).(WCU).(S)]^CI

Scoping study of research trends on Nili Ravi buffalo applying scientometric analysis and network visualization

The study elucidates scientometric analysis of published scientific communications on Nili Ravi buffalo in journal(s) for having an appraisal of status-quo of the research and scientific activities. Metadata of 383 articles retrieved from Scopus were analysed to identify the most productive author(s), institution(s) vis-a-vis countries and to ascertain their collaboration trends. Keyword based analysis was performed to provide an overview of the strength areas of research on Nili Ravi for better comprehension. The results revealed that the research efforts on Nili Ravi were discernible after the year 2005. All except 1.30% articles have been an outcome of the collaborative authorship. There were only few productive authors with ≥10 records, but others contributed on the subject occasionally. Nearly 90% of the articles have been contributed by Pakistan and its' authors have worked in close collaboration with scientists from United Kingdom, United States of America, China, Canada, and South Korea. They also have conjoint symbiosis on academic/research endavours on Nili Ravi with experts from Austria, Netherlands, India, Germany, Italy, and Australia. Twelve leading institutions contributed to ≥10 articles. Publication outcome of the Animal Sciences Institute, National Agricultural Research Centre, Islamabad, Pakistan; Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan; University of Gujrat, Gujrat, Pakistan and Semen Production Unit, Qadirabad, Sahiwal, Pakistan has higher Relative Citation Impact (RCI), making it obvious that their publication(s) have wider acceptance amongst scientific populace. Most productive vis-à-vis impactful journals publishing articles on Nili Ravi have also been identified.

Application of DeLone and McLean model on students’ E-learning systems during COVID-19 using PLS-SEM

Education is the most important factor for growth of countries’ social and economic development. The purpose of this study is to know online learning experience, system satisfaction and system usage of students in University of Gujrat. Due to COVID-19 pandemic, traditional (face to face) learning method was stopped and educational institutions shifted to online teaching and learning platforms. To gauge online learning system (platforms) a modified DeLone and McLean (D&M) model was used that comprising Instructors’ Information Quality, Instructors’ Service Quality, System Quality, System Usage, System Satisfaction and Academic Achievements factors. The data was collected from 340 students (Batch, 2017-20) using self-administrated questionnaire through Students’ University email medium. Reliability and Validity of the data was tested and found up to the mark. The results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis revealed that all underlying factors achieved measurement invariance test and Fernell and Lacker criteria. Multi-group analysis showed that students of BS4th and BS8th/MSc4th have different opinion with respect to instructors’ information quality towards system satisfaction. Also, students of BS6th and BS8th/MSc 4th have different view according to system usage and their academic achievements. Further, PLS-SEM results showed that students of BS6th and BS8th/MSc4th reported significant positive impact of System Usage on their Academic Achievements. Furthermore, results depicted that a week negative relationship exist between instructors’ service quality with system satisfaction.

Role of Mothers’ Expressed Emotions in Psychopathology and Social-Emotional Competence in Adolescents

Objective: To study the role of mothers’ expressed emotions in psychopathology and social-emotional competence in adolescents. Study Design: Cross sectional study. Place and Duration of Study: Department of Psychology, University of Gujrat, Gujrat Pakistan, from Jul 2020 to Aug 2021 Methodology: Five hundred mothers and their five hundred adolescents were approached to measure the role of mothers’expressed emotions in psychopathology and social-emotional competence in adolescents. For this purpose, parental Expressed Emotions Scale-1 was used, and to assess the psychopathology and social-emotional competence in adolescents, Social Anxiety Scale-2 and Social-Emotional Competence Scale-3 were used. Results: Artificial neural network (ANN) analysis was used to identify the mothers' expressed emotions as predictors of social anxiety and social-emotional competence in adolescents. Results showed incorrect predictions was for training data (60%) and for testing data (28%), which signify the current results that around 72% of right decision about mothers’ expressed emotions as a predictor of social anxiety and social-emotional competence in adolescents. Conclusion: In the teenage period, youth face an increasing number of psychological, social, and developmental challenges. Mothers are the first teachers of their children. When they fail to support them and display ways of negatively expressing emotions, it leads to overall mental health issues, in which social anxiety is the most common challenge.

Development and Validation of Body Dysmorphic Disorder Scale for Screening General Population

Objective: To develop a reliable and valid Urdu indigenous Body Dysmorphic Disorder Scale (BDDS) for the Pakistani community.
 Study Design: Cross-sectional study
 Place and Duration of Study: Department of Psychology, University of Gujrat, Gujrat Pakistan, from Jun to Dec 2020.
 Methodology: Based on the literature review, DSM-V criteria and semi-structured interviews conducted with psychologists clinical psychologists, and psychiatrists, an item pool of 78 items was generated for BDDS. A panel of five experts evaluated these items for content and revised them based on judgemental remarks. In the pilot study, 40 individuals were purposively selected, and 78 items were administered, yielding 0.94 Cronbach Alpha. Pilot study-I was conducted on 350 participants for Inter-item correlations and Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA). Pilot study II selected 120 participants conveniently, and Dysmorphic Concern Questionnaire (DCQ) along with a Scale of Adjustment Problems for Adults (SAPA) and BDDS were administered to analyse the validation of BDDS. In the main study, 200 conveniently selected individuals were given BDDS for Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA).
 Results: Exploratory Factor Analysis yielded three factors with 77 total items of BDDS, each having 19 (Behavioural Slants), 14 (Relational Sensitivity) and 44 (Self-Criticism) items, showing Cronbach Alpha of 0.98 on the present sample. Convergent validity and discriminant validity DCQ and SAPA were satisfactory, respectively. CFA on 200 conveniently selected general population youth yielded 18 items screening BDDS.
 Conclusion: Body Dysmorphic Disorder Scale is a reliable and valid indigenous tool developed in Pakistan. Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed to screen the general population.

Development and Validation of Caregiver Social Isolation Scale

Objective: To develop an indigenous Caregiver Social Isolation Scale (CSIS) in Urdu for caregivers of mental and physical disorders in Pakistan.
 Study Design: Mixed method study.
 Place and Duration of Study: Department of Psychology, University of Gujrat, Pakistan, from Jan to Jun 2021.
 Methodology: An item pool of 48 was generated based on a thematic analysis of structured interviews with six experts and nine caregivers. The content validity was evaluated by three PhDs in Psychology and two Physicians. The reliability calculated on thirty participants for a tryout was 0.95. Item total correlation of item tool was in the acceptable range. A pilot study was done on three hundred individuals. The value of the KMO was 0.952, which showed the adequacy of the data, with the value of Bartlett’s test significant. No item was deducted. The reliability of 48 items on 300 individuals was 0.976, with two factors. First, for the validity of CSIS, data was collected from 120 individuals with standardized Ryff’s psychological well-being scale, Scale of Social Support and Delong Loneliness Scale. Second, confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on 200 caregivers of children with cleft lip and palate.
 Results: Exploratory factor analysis yielded two factors, mental agony and lack of social cohesion, with 48 items. Model fit indices of CFA on caregivers......
 Conclusion: CSIS is a reliable and valid scale for assessing the social isolation experiences of caregivers of either mental or physical diseases in Urdu.Keywords: Cleft lip, Cleft palate, Caregiver social isolation scale, Exploratory factor analysis.

Scale on Stress among Parents having only Daughters: Developing a Reliable Measure

Objective: To develop a reliable scale to measure stress among parents with only daughters.
 Study Design: Cross-sectional study.
 Place and Duration of Study: Department of Psychology, University of Gujrat, Gujrat Pakistan, from May to Jul 2019.
 Methodology: The study was conducted on parents who have only daughters. A pool of 59 items was created through brainstorming sessions and an intensive literature review. Afterwards, 42 items were retained through meticulous evaluation and assessment of experts. Subsequently, a scale was administered to 242 respondents who were selected through a purposive sampling technique. All the items were retained because of their high correlation with item total (r≥0.5). Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) proceeded for structure exploration and confirmation. Furthermore, the reliability of the scale was established.
 Results: EFA led to five factors encompassing 36 items. Moreover, CFA was carried out, and the model fit summary showed some indices in good ranges (RFI=0.923, NFI=0.940, GFI=0.928) while some in excellent ranges (CFI=0.970, IFI= 0.971, TLI=0.962) after the deletion of 22 items with significance p-value (0.001). The reliability of the scale was 0.93, while the reliability of the subscale ranges from 0.81 to 0.88.
 Conclusion: A reliable scale to measure Stress among parents having only daughters was successfully developed with 14 items casing four subscales.

Use of Social Media Tools by Undergraduates: Students and Teachers’ Perspective

This study explores the use of social media tools by undergraduate students and teachers from their perspectives. A mixed-methods research approach, which includes a survey of 150 students and interviews with ten teachers at the University of Gujrat, was used. The study found that social media tools are widely applied by undergraduate students, with Facebook being the most popular platform. Students use social media primarily for communication with peers, sharing of academic resources, and entertainment. Teachers also use social media, but less frequently than students, and for professional development and communication with colleagues. The results indicate that social media has a significant negative impact on the quality of education, with students reporting increased distraction and reduced academic performance due to excessive use of social media. The research also discovered that the students who spent more time on social media were more likely to experience anxiety and depression, which further affected their academic performance. The findings suggest that universities need to take a more proactive approach to address the negative effects of social media on education, including providing guidance and support to students on how to use social media in a more responsible and productive manner.

EMOTIONAL DISTRESS AND WELLBEING IN CAREGIVERS OF CHILDREN WITH CLEFT LIP AND CLEFT PALATE: MEDIATING ROLE OF SOCIAL ISOLATION

The objectives of the research are 1) To assess the relationship in emotional distress, social isolation and psychological well-being among care givers of children with cleft lip and cleft palate. 2) To confirm mediating role of social isolation between emotional distress and wellbeing. This cross-sectional correlational research was conducted in Department of Psychology, University of Gujrat after approval from ASRB and data was collected between January to April, 2021. A sample of 200 caregivers visiting cleft hospital in Gujrat with their children who have cleft lip and cleft palate was purposively selected. There were 96 males and 104 females between age range 20 to 75 years old (M=34.71, SD=10.80). Majority was educated, residing in rural areas of Gujrat in joint family system. Urdu versions of three standardized scales were used for data collection, Caregiver Social Isolation Scale (CSIS, Shafiq & Amwar-ul-Mustafa, 2022), Psychological Wellbeing Scale (PWS, Boztepe, Çınar, & Özgür, 2020) and Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale (DASS-21, Lovibond, & Lovibond, 1995) to measure emotional distress. Permissions were taken before using the scales from the test developers and translators. The results showed that there is a significant relationship between emotional distress (Depression, Anxiety and Stress), social isolation and psychological well-being among caregivers of children with cleft lip and cleft palate. Social Isolation has positive significant positive relationship with depression, Anxiety, stress and negative significant relationship with psychological well-being and has mediated either partially or fully among them. Depression has partially strengthened social isolation to mediate with wellbeing of caregivers. However, anxiety and stress has completely enhanced this withdrawal to weaken their sense of wellness. Implications are discussed in the light of the findings. Keywords: Caregivers, Child, Hospitalized, Cleft Lip, Cleft Palate, Congenital Abnormalities, Social Isolation.

Development and Validation of Parental Attachment Styles Scale for Adolescents

Objective: To construct an instrument and establish psychometric properties to measure parental attachment styles for adolescents in Urdu language Study Design: Cross-sectional analytical study. Place and Duration of Study: This research was carried out in the Department of Psychology, University of Gujrat, Pakistan,. 20. 20. 20. 202019 to Jan. 5 Jan. Jan. 5 52021. Material and Methods: Initial item pool (150 items), based on Ainsworth et al. (1985) attachment styles theory, intensive review of the literature, and focus group interviews (Girls=30, Boys=30. Among the 141 items, shortened by an expert panel, the pilot study retained 137 reliable items for final administration. Furthermore, 1200 adolescents (12-19 years) from the community and educational institutions were approached to gather information in district Gujrat ereh here data was analyzed with the help of exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and reliability analysis on SPSS-22 and Amos-22.FResults: Exploratory factor analysis on SPSS-22 explored 38 reliable items for the Parental Attachment Styles scale under three -sub-factors; Secure Attachment, Anxious-Resistance Attachment, and Anxious-Avoidant Attachment, whereas 15 items were confirmed for the final instrument through model fit (P-value=.000, CFI=.947, GFI=.947, AGFI= .927, RMSEA=.064) of Confirmatory Factor Analysis. Conclusion: An assessment tool in the Urdu language to estimate Parental Attachment Styles for adolescents is competently developed and validated with 15 items and three sub-scales.

Analyzing Errors in Written Summary of Research Article: A Case Study of BS English Students at University of Gujrat, Pakistan

Analyzing Errors in Written Summary of Research Article: A Case Study of BS English Students at University of Gujrat, Pakistan

A Comparison and Prediction of Irrational Beliefs and Cognitive Functioning Among Depressed and Non-Depressed Adults in Gujrat, Pakistan

Objective: To compare and predict the irrational beliefs and cognitive functioning among depressed and non-depressed adults in Gujrat, Pakistan.
 Study Design: Comparative cross-sectional study.
 Place and Duration of Study: Zulfiqar Hospital, Akram Hospital and Aziz Bhatti Hospital, Gujrat and Department of Psychology, the University of Gujrat from Dec 2017 to Mar 2018.
 Methodology: The data was collected from 200 adults, 100 depressed adults and 100 non-depressed adults using consecutive sampling. The non-depressed adults with no past psychiatric history were recruited from the community. The irrational beliefs were assessed using the Evaluative beliefs scale, and cognitive functioning was measured using the Montreal cognitive assessment scale.
 Results: The independent sample t-test indicated that there was a statistically significant difference (p<0.001) in the irrational beliefs of depressed and non-depressed adults, and the irrational beliefs of depressed were more (37.83 ± 8.12) than the nondepressed adults (4.33 ± 4.64). The comparison of cognitive functioning of the depressed and non-depressed was also significantly different (p<0.001). The cognitive functioning of depressed adults was poorer (12.44 ± 3.85) than the nondepressed adults (26.92 ± 2.55). Further-more, irrational beliefs predict cognitive functioning [R²=0.729; F (1,198) = 532.763, p<0.001].
 Conclusion: The study findings indicated a difference in the irrational beliefs and cognitive functioning of depressed and nondepressed adults. Further, the depressed had more irrational beliefs and worsened cognitive functioning.

PREVALENCE AND DEMOGRAPHIC CORRELATES OF DEPRESSION, ANXIETY, AND STRESS AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

Objectives: To study the prevalence and demographic correlates of depression, anxiety and stress among university students.
 Study Design: Correlational Research Design
 Place and Duration of Study: Data was collected from University of Gujrat, Gujrat between 6 February, 2019 to, 5 April 2019.
 Material and Methods: A sample of 400 students selected by random sampling technique were approached from two departments namely Psychology and Environmental Sciences which were randomly selected from Faculty of Social Sciences and Faculty of Sciences respectively. Depression, Anxiety, Stress Scale-42 (DASS-42) along with demographic sheet and informed consent forms were administered.
 Results: Prevalence of moderate to extremely severe level of depression, anxiety, and stress as 54.8%, 73.5%, and 44.3% respectively was found among university students. Depression, anxiety, and stress were found to be positively and significantly related, having high Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability coefficients. Among demographic variables, type of study group significantly predicted level of depression, anxiety, and stress among students. Age and income significantly predicted level of depression, while the former also contributed in anxiety. However, gender was significant predictor of stress only among university students.
 Conclusion: The prevalence of depression, anxiety and stress was high among university students in Gujrat. There is a need for launching of counseling and preventive interventions to halt psychiatric disorders at early stages among university students.

Gender-Based Politeness Strategies: A Case Study of the Department of English, University of Gujrat

Gender-based differences in language use have been investigated by researchers for a long time. It has been observed that men and women comply with different linguistic norms in their speeches. This fact not only characterizes their individual style but also portrays their respective masculinity and femininity. However, it has been noted also that linguistic norms are not necessarily gender specific. In this regard, this research paper aims to analyze the politeness-based strategies used by male and female faculty members of the Department of English, University of Gujrat while making conversation. Data was collected through purposive sampling technique keeping in view Lakoff’s politeness principles. For this purpose, the lectures of two male and female faculty members were recorded. The collected data was analyzed to highlight which gender complies more with the principles of politeness, as depicted by Robin Lakoff. The findings proved female faculty members to be more polite as compared to male faculty members. The current research helps future researchers and readers to understand how language works spontaneously among different genders and how communication can be improved by pedagogics while using the politeness principles laid down by Robin Lakoff.
 Keywords: communication, gender, language use, lectures, politeness

ANALYZING FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT PRACTICES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHERS IN PAKISTAN

Formative assessment is one of the most prized methods in our post-industrial and global world. One of the most serious indictments of the traditional evaluative methods of spoken and written English is their essential inadequacies and incompatibilities with the present-day pedagogical trends. Formative assessment in a second language (SL) is, indeed, one of the most difficult and most significant tasks we engage our students in as human beings. It is a mixed method study which employs an evaluative research method. Taking the theoretical framework in mind, the data have been collected to analyze the formative assessment practices in two of the universities of Pakistan, i.e., the National University of Modern Languages and the University of Gujrat. A questionnaire has been constructed, piloted and later on administered to 134 teachers in two of the universities of Pakistan. All teachers of two universities teaching productive skills in various cities of Pakistan participated in the study. To validate the findings of the questionnaire, interviews have also been conducted. On the whole, the findings of the study display that there are many inadequacies in the formative assessment practices of the teachers, and thereby some suggestions have been put forwarded to amend the formative assessment practices of the teachers. Keywords: Formative assessment, communicative method, productive skills, Pakistan.

Impact of Sleep Deprivation and Coping Abilities on The Psychological Adjustment of Caregivers of The Elderly

Objective: To examine the impact of sleep deprivation and coping abilities on the psychological adjustment of caregivers of elderly.
 Study Design: Cross sectional analytical study.
 Place and Duration: Department of Psychology, University of Gujrat, Gujrat Pakistan, from Jan to Jul 2018.
 Methodology: The caregivers of the elderly were recruited in the study with the caregiving experience of 6 months to 2 years. The respondents with any physical or psychological problems were excluded from the study. The sleep deprivation, coping and psychological adjustment were measured using the Pittsburgh sleep quality index, coping styles scale, scale of adjustment for adults respectively.
 Results: The data of 200 caregivers of the elderly was analyzed using structure equation modeling. The model fit was established with the p-value of <0.001. It was found that caregivers' sleep deprivation and coping abilities affected their psychological adjustments. The overall model confirmed that sleep deprivation and coping ability affected the psychological adjustment. The individual relationship between sleep deprivation predicted psychological adjustment with the value of regression estimate as 5.808 (p-value <0.001). Furthermore, the role of coping abilities on psychological adjustment had a regression value of 0.151 (p-value 0.7013).
 Conclusion: The sleep deprivation affected the psychological adjustment of caregivers of the elderly, whereas the coping abilities did not affect the psychological adjustment.

BULLYING, VICTIMIZATION, AND REJECTION SENSITIVITY IN ADOLESCENTS: MEDIATING ROLE OF SELF-REGULATION

Objective: To explore the mediating role of self-regulation in bullying, victimization as related with rejection sen­sitivity among adolescents. Methodology: This cross-sectional research was conducted at the Department of Psychology, University of Gujrat after taking approval from Advanced Studies and Research Board. In first phase, Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ) and Rejection Sensitivity Questionnaire (RSQ) were translated into Urdu language by forward-backward translation method after taking permission from their respective authors. For pilot-testing, these scales were ad­ministered on 130 students and scales were found to be reliable with a=0.83 and a=0.85 respectively. In second phase, Urdu version of Adolescent Peer Relations Instrument (ARRI) by Parada, SRQ, and RSQ were administered to a sample of 608 college students. Stratified Random Sampling technique was use to collect the data. The data was analyzed in AMOS-21. Results: The study reported male as 330, and female as 278, age range between 16 to 19 years with mean of 17.60±0.83 years. The model fit indices of chi-square/df =2.2 (p<0.001), Goodness of fit (GFI)=0.94, Adjusted goodness of fit (AGFI)=0.91, Comparative fit index (CFI)=0.904, Incremental fit index (IFI)=0.906, Tucker Lewis index (TLI)= 0.88 and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA)=0.046 were in the acceptable limits. Structure Equation Model in AMOS-21 showed significant mediating role of self-regulation with bullying, victimi­zation and rejection sensitivity among adolescents. Conclusion: Self-regulation has fully and significantly mediated the association of both bullying and victimization with the level of sensitivity for rejection in adolescents.

DEMOGRAPHIC DETERMINANTS OF RELATIONAL AGGRESSION AMONG ADOLESCENT STUDENTS

Objective: To determine the predictive relation of demographic variables with relational aggression.
 Study Design: Cross sectional study.
 Place and Duration of Study: Department of Psychology, University of Gujrat, Gujrat Pakistan, from Aug 2017 to Jan 2018.
 Methodology: A total of 612 adolescent students were selected with age 12-19 years from diverse academic institutes of Gujrat city. Urdu version of diverse adolescent relational aggression scale was used to measure relational aggression. Neural network analysis was carried out by using SPSS-21.
 Result: The findings of this study revealed significant predictive relation of demographic variables (gender, birth order, family system, number of siblings and age) with relational aggression. The most important predictor of relational aggression in teenagers was birth order 0.249 (100%), age 0.246 (98.9%) siblings 0.242 (86.3%), family system 0.166 (66.8%) and gender 123 (49.6) respectively.
 Conclusion: Demographic variables are the significant predictor of relational aggression. By managing the effects of these variables, adverse behavior of relational aggression can be controlled in adolescent students

Meteorological Pursuit a case study of Hafiz Hayat Campus, University of Gujrat, Pakistan

Being an important phenomenon “Weather Observation” or “Meteorology” is not only interesting for Meteorologists but also for environmentalists and geologists as well. So for this an internship program was held at University of Gujrat Hafiz Hayat Campus, in a newly maintained Met Office, where appointed Official Weather Observers supervised this work. So in this way this is a wonderful chance to become a part of Starting Weather observation at UOG, being the students of Environmental Sciences. A group of students worked as internees.

DEVELOPMENT AND PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF PARENTAL EXPRESSED EMOTIONS SCALE

Objective: To construct a scale and psychometric properties for the assessment of Parental expressed emotions scale in Urdu language.
 Study Design: Cross sectional study.
 Place and Duration of Study: Department of Psychology, University of Gujrat, from Mar to Oct 2019.
 Methodology: The initial item pool of 224 items was generated with the help of CFI (Camber well Family Interview description of parental expressed emotions scale, literature review and three focus groups with target population. Among the 124 expert evaluated items after pilot study 100 items were retained which included the five dimensions of parental expressed emotions scale including, Criticalcomments, Hostility, Emotional overinvolvement, Warmth and Positive remarks. Furthermore, in the final administration of this scales data were collected from 380 parents (both mothers & fathers) from the educational institutions and community of Gujrat using self-reported questionnaire. The exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and reliability analysis were implied for data scrutiny.
 Results: The final administration of 100 items was handed over to 380 participants. The model fit showed a p-value of 0.000 that established the structure validity and significance of the items to its subscales. At the final stage among the 100 items 31 were reliable for further use.
 Conclusion: A scale to measure parental expressed emotions in Urdu language is competently established with 31 questions andfive sub-scales.