Universal Product Code Research Articles

Different Times Call for Different Measures: Using Retail Sales to Monitor the Tobacco Product Landscape

Different Times Call for Different Measures: Using Retail Sales to Monitor the Tobacco Product Landscape

RFID Batch Authentication—A Usable Scheme Providing Anonymity

Businesses are slowly replacing Universal Product Code (barcodes used for tracking items) with radio-frequency identification (RFID). Unlike a barcode, RFID tag does not need to be within the line of sight of the reader, and can be interrogated from up to hundreds of meters from the reader in the case of active tag. Some readers are designed to read multiple RFID tags concurrently, which is useful in, e.g., warehouses. We address the problem of efficient methods for simultaneous authentication of multiple RFID tags – batch tag authentication. We provide a general design to build a provable secure batch tag authentication protocol from a single-tag authentication scheme using some aggregation function. Our main goal is to build a computationally-efficient batch tag authentication method that provides a reasonable level of anonymity in a model with an untrusted RFID reader. We provide an efficiency analysis of a protocol where the Bloom filter is used as the aggregation function together with a brief comparison with alternative data structures.

The Impact of Seattle's Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Tax on Substitution to Sweets and Salty Snacks

BackgroundSugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) taxes may have broad effects on purchases of untaxed foods, and substitution of SSBs with untaxed sweets and/or salty snacks could offset the intended dietary and health effects of these policies. ObjectivesTo test whether there were changes in sales and calories sold for untaxed foods in response to the SSB tax in Seattle, Washington, at 12 and 24 months post-tax implementation. MethodsOn 1 January 2018, the City of Seattle levied a 1.75 cents per ounce excise tax on distributors selling targeted SSBs. We utilized universal product code–level store scanner data and employed a difference-in-differences approach to assess the impacts of the tax on the changes in 1) sales of sweets and salty snacks; and 2) total calories sold for sweets in Seattle relative to changes in its comparison site of Portland, Oregon, at 12 and 24 months post-tax. ResultsIn the 12 months post-tax, sales of sweets increased by 4% [ratio of incidence rate ratios (RIRR), 1.04; 95% CI, 1.03–1.05] in Seattle relative to the changes in Portland; at 24 months post-tax, sweet sales increased by 6% (RIRR, 1.06; 95% CI, 1.05–1.07) relative to the pretax period. There was no significant change in sales of salty snacks at 12 months (RIRR, 1.00; 95% CI, 0.99–1.01) or 24 months (RIRR, 1.00; 95% CI, 0.98–1.02) post-tax. Total calories sold for sweets increased by 3% (RIRR, 1.03; 95% CI, 1.02–1.05) in Seattle compared with Portland at 12 months post-tax and by 4% (RIRR, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.02–1.05) at 24 months after implementation. ConclusionsThere was modest substitution of SSBs for sweets in Seattle following tax implementation. However, this increase in sales and calories sold is not likely to offset previously identified tax-related reductions in the demand for taxed beverages in Seattle. Thus, SSB taxes are a promising policy tool to reduce caloric intake in the United States.

The impact of the Oakland SSB tax on prices and volume sold: A study of intended and unintended consequences.

We examine the effects of a sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) tax that took effect in Oakland, California in 2017. Using rich customized universal product code -level data, we estimate the effect of the SSB tax on prices and volume in the short to medium term in a difference-in-differences framework. We pay particular attention to tax-avoidance strategies that may minimize the policy's intended effect including: (i) transfers to SSBs to the nontaxed border area (i.e., cross-border shopping), (ii) a move from high-priced per ounce single serve to their cheaper multipacks or larger format counterparts (i.e., format switching), and (iii) a move from high-priced beverages to less expensive ones within a category and format (i.e., brand switching). We find that the year-over-year tax pass-through is 49%. We find that volume sold of taxed beverages fell by 14%, but 46% of this decrease is offset with an increase in the border area. We also find evidence of substitution to lower-priced taxed beverages but no evidence of switching to cheaper formats. Finally, we find important dynamic effects with respect to tax pass-through, volume sold and cross-border shopping.

Prices and competition: evidence from a social program

ABSTRACT We use a micro price dataset for products defined at the universal product code level to analyze the impact on prices of a social program in Uruguay that allows its beneficiaries to purchase food, beverages, and cleaning items exclusively in certain small retailers. We find that an unintended negative consequence is that the beneficiaries pay significantly higher prices to other retailers. We find this result for the whole country except for areas with the highest retailer density in Montevideo’s capital city. We also do not find evidence of price discrimination of stores against program beneficiaries. The participant stores charge the same price to beneficiaries and other customers. For an overall assessment of the program, we find that an unintended consequence of it was a price increase for all customers in capital cities that increased the cost of the program.

Upstream, Downstream: Diffusion and Impacts of the Universal Product Code

We study the adoption, diffusion, and impacts of the Universal Product Code (UPC) between 1975 and 1992, during the initial years of the barcode system. We find evidence of network effects in the diffusion process. Matched-sample difference-in-difference estimates show that firm size and trademark registrations increase following UPC adoption by manufacturers. Industry-level import penetration also increases with domestic UPC adoption. Our findings suggest that barcodes, scanning, and related technologies helped stimulate variety-enhancing product innovation and encourage the growth of international retail supply chains.

Changes in cigarillo availability following implementation of a local flavoured tobacco sales restriction

IntroductionProvidence, Rhode Island (RI) was among the first US jurisdictions to enact a policy (effective 3 January 2013) restricting the retail sale of non-cigarette tobacco products with a characterising flavour...

Eco-Packaging and its Market Performance: UPC-level Sales, Brand Spillover Effects, and Curvilinearity

The prior research has partially addressed the full impacts of eco-packaging, mainly focusing on intention or attitude in a limited context. We attempt to investigate the actual consumer behavioral pattern to the eco-packaging appeals with revealed preference data. To test the diverse impacts on various product hierarchies, the sales of frequently purchased product category was applied. The scanner panel data availability in multi-category products enables us to test (1) the eco-packaging appeal impacts on Universal Product Code level sales, (2) the eco-packaging impacts on brand spillover effect, and (3) the linear or non-linear relationship between eco-packaging appeal and sales. Our results show that eco-packaging does contribute to its individual product sales. With regard to the brand spillover effect, our results reveal rather interesting results: brand spillover effect is present when eco-packaging intensity is high in the own product category, but not when the intensity is high in other product categories even if they both carry the same umbrella brand. Lastly, we discover an inverted U-shaped relationship between eco-packaging intensity within a brand and brand-level sales. It implies that adding eco-packaging appeal to products would actually increase the whole brand sales immediately, but after a peak point, the positive association transfer is weakened. Our results highlight that it is necessary to consider that ecologically sound packaging does induce market success.

Universal Product Code (Barcode) and Retailing Performance of Supermarkets in Nigeria

This study examined the relationship between Universal Product Code and Retailing Performance of Supermarkets in Nigeria. The specific objectives of the study were to investigate the influence of bar code formatting and bar code encoding on retailing performance. The study adopted the cross sectional research study. The choice of this approach is because it will scientifically examine the situation on ground and empirically analyze it to get result that can be generalized on the accessible population. Based on the research questions, a research questionnaire was designed and one hundred (100) copies were distributed to the sample population which was determined by convenient sampling techniques. After data cleaning, a total of ninety two (92) copies of the distributed questionnaire were retrieved. These copies were analyzed and the hypotheses were tested using the Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient with the aid of SPSS Version 22.0. The result revealed that; there is a significant relationship between bar code formatting and sales volume, bar code formatting and profitability, bar code encoding and sales volume, bar code encoding and profitability. The study recommends that Supermarkets should endeavour to update regularly, their products barcode fields to ensure that their wide range of products are always captured and enlisted in the field to ease up the purchase and sales activities of the supermarkets; Regular training exercise should be organized to educate the staff of the supermarkets on how to manage the barcode fields and to efficiently handle issues relating to formatting and encoding of the barcode fields. Keywords: Universal, Product, Code, Retailing, Performance, Barcode Formatting, Barcode Encoding, Sales Volume and Profitability. DOI: 10.7176/EJBM/12-29-03 Publication date: October 31 st 2020

An imperceptible barcode can reduce the muscle activity required to scan common consumer packaged goods

While the Universal Product Code (UPC) has remained unchanged since its implementation in the 1970s, new technology and consumer package good layouts have started to change the UPC layout. The purpose of this study was to compare how upper extremity muscle activity was altered when scanning consumer packaged goods enhanced with an imperceptible barcode or a multi-sided UPC layout. Seventeen experienced cashiers participated in this study. Electromyography of four bilateral upper extremity muscles was recorded when scanning individual consumer packaged goods and a mock grocery cart. Scanning time and integrated electromyography were compared between the packages enhanced with an imperceptible barcode or the multi-sided barcodes versus the traditional barcodes. Participants were more efficient when scanning packages with the altered barcodes compared to the traditional barcode. Scanning the individual consumer packaged goods resulted in lower peak muscle activity for the shoulder muscles and elbow flexors when using packages enhanced with the imperceptible barcode. When extrapolated over a 4-h shift, the packages enhanced with the imperceptible barcode lowered upper extremity cumulative muscle activity measured muscles; however, the multi-sided layout only demonstrated a reduced muscular activity for the trapezius and left forearm. Future work must continue to assess grocery scanning practices, training, and other alternative scanning practices, such as hand scanners and self-checkout stands.

Trends in Unit Sales of Flavored and Menthol Electronic Cigarettes in the United States, 2012-2016.

IntroductionThe use of flavored tobacco products, including electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes), is common in the United States, and flavored products are particularly appealing to young people. The objective of this study was to describe national and state trends in flavored and menthol e-cigarette unit sales.MethodsWe examined data on 4 types of e-cigarette products (rechargeables, disposables, prefilled cartridges, and e-liquid refills). We used Universal Product Code retail scanner data from 2 sources: 1) convenience stores and 2) all other outlets combined, including supermarkets, drug stores, mass merchandisers (including Walmart), dollar stores, club stores, and US Department of Defense commissaries. We aggregated data in 4-week periods for the 48 contiguous states and the District of Columbia for the 5-year period from 2012 through 2016. Data from vape shops and internet sales were not available. We used Joinpoint regression to assess trends.ResultsFrom 2012 through 2016, flavored e-cigarette sales as a percentage of all e-cigarette sales increased nationally (from 2.4% to 19.8%) and in all but 4 states (North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Vermont). Nationally, flavored disposable and prefilled cartridge sales increased. Menthol e-cigarette sales were stable nationally at 35% to 40%, while the percentage of menthol disposable, prefilled cartridge, and e-liquid refill sales decreased. By state, menthol e-cigarette sales increased in 2 states (Idaho and Nebraska) and decreased in 7 states. During 2015–2016, the percentage of flavored sales decreased in one state (Rhode Island) and increased in 29 states.ConclusionThese findings demonstrate that sales of flavored e-cigarette products have increased dramatically since 2012, with variations by product type and state. Continued monitoring of sales trends at all retail outlets can inform federal, state, and local efforts to address flavored tobacco product use, including e-cigarettes, in the United States.

The effect of scanning technology and UPC placement on supermarket self‐checkout

Self‐checking services are offered in many supermarkets. In order to checkout efficiently, customers must locate and scan the Universal Product Code (UPC) of the items with relative ease. Otherwise, their preferences toward using the self‐checkout (SCO) stations may be negatively affected. The current literature has no focus on UPC location, and the scanning technology used effect on performance and preferences. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of these from an operational and ergonomic perspective. To that end, 2 UPC placement techniques (current and recommended placement) and 2 scanning technologies (bi‐optic and handheld scanners) were tested. The total scanning time, individual items scanning time, trunk posture, total number of wrong twists/flips, individual items wrong flips, muscle activities, and participants' subjective preferences were measured. The results revealed that total scanning time was significantly reduced when using bi‐optic scanner (F = 20.9, P < 0.01). The recommended UPC placement led to a significant improvement on UPC anticipation for both scanning technologies (F = 16.8, P < 0.01). Additionally, exposure to non‐neutral trunk posture(s) was shown to be significantly decreased in the bi‐optic condition (F = 10.4, P < 0.01). Proper UPCs' placement and bi‐optic scanner can positively improve the efficiency and experience of the SCO.

Upstream, Downstream: Diffusion and Impacts of the Universal Product Code

We study the adoption, diffusion, and impacts of the Universal Product Code (UPC) between 1975 and 1992, during the initial years of the barcode system. We find evidence of network effects in the diffusion process. Matched-sample difference-in-difference estimates show that firm size and trademark registrations increase following UPC adoption by manufacturers. Industry-level import penetration also increases with domestic UPC adoption. Our findings suggest that barcodes, scanning, and related technologies helped stimulate variety-enhancing product innovation and encourage the growth of international retail supply chains.

Time Has Come to Raise the Bar in Oncology Clinical Trials

Time Has Come to Raise the Bar in Oncology Clinical Trials

DNA Barcoding: a new tool with wide array of applications

DNA barcoding is a new term introduced in to scientific literatures by Hebert and coworkers almost a decade ago. The concept of barcoding alone is well-known to the public: a series of black bars printed on many commercial products (Universal Product Code), which are used to distinguish different products. Advances made in molecular biology and molecular techniques late 20th century e.g. sequencing technologies, has inspired scientists to apply barcoding concept to all domains of life by using the unique nature of DNA for each single species, in order to generate a comprehensive library of living organisms on the planet earth. Such an ambitious initiative would result in a global DNA barcode database which will be valuable for biological scientists, medical, governmental and legal agencies as a mean of identification. The first initiative for DNA barcoding was funded in Canada and later on several DNA barcoding campaigns came in to the scene. The International Barcode of Life consortium (http://ibol.org/) was established in 2004. It is an international initiative devoted to develop DNA barcoding as a global standard for the identification of biological species. The Consortium for the Barcode of Life (CBOL), an international consortium coordinated from Smithsonian Institute in Washington (USA), was established to promote DNA barcoding, coordinate efforts and generally oversee the standardization process. DNA barcoding is a technique for discriminating species through analysis of sequence data, i. e. short sequences of genetic material in the genome that are unique to that organism are used to identify species mainly through PCR amplification by using primers for the broadest- possible target taxonomic group. The usefulness of DNA barcodes for proper discrimination of species was first demonstrated in animals. A 648 nucleotide base pair length region from the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase 1 (CoI) gene was used to identify different animal species; such that, this short sequence has emerged as the standard barcode region for higher animals. The important criteria for barcode loci are effective species-level identification – achieved when interspecific variation exceeds intraspecific –, universality, good sequence quality and coverage. Several global DNA barcoding campaigns have been established to target specific taxonomic groups such as such as plants, fungi, protists, bacteria and different entities of the kingdom animal including fishes, brides, insects, nematodes, mammals etc. In most cases in animals, CoI provides adequate resolution. However, in plants, fungi the substitution rates of this gene are much slower, and scientists are actively searching for barcode genes. For example the nuclear ribosomal Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) region has been proposed as universal DNA barcode marker for Fungi by the Fungal Barcoding Consortium published. However, in certain groups of fungi the ITS region fail to discrimination species; such that, secondary barcode loci will be needed for the proper delineation of species in question. One of the most important issues in DNA barcoding is standardization. A DNA barcode is not the same as a DNA sequence. For a barcode, the sequence should stem from a voucher specimen with the voucher being accessible in public collections and the trace files on which the sequences are based should be publically available. The quality and uniformity of data in databases is very crucial for the success of DNA barcodes as a universal molecular identification key. To achieve this goal, a set of guidelines and protocols should be set from collecting species to storing molecular data. The final goal of DNA barcoding project is to create a barcode reference library, where sequence data must be integrated with well characterized taxonomic units. Reference sequences are the core component of the DNA

Assuring dietary supplement quality for cancer patients: An integrated formulary systems approach.

e20663 Background: Studies reveal up to 80% of cancer patients use some form of dietary supplements (DS). Despite the need for additional research, evidence exists that some DS may be of clinical value. In order to provide safe DS recommendations to patients, we created a Dietary Supplement Formulary Committee (DSFC). Methods: Twelve manufacturers (marketing 19 DS brands) with a reasonable reputation among providers for quality were selected. A survey tool was created to measure critical quality, GMP and FDA compliance practices; information was obtained via non-disclosure agreements; manufacturing documents were audited and compared to survey responses; FDA audit reports were obtained under Freedom of Information requests; site audits were conducted; and third party analytical testing was performed. Results: All 12 companies claimed to be operating in full compliance with FDA regulations. However, 3 had received Warning Letters from FDA for GMP violations; 2 performed a product recall within the last 5 years; 4 reported products that failed Consumerlab.com for potency or purity; 1 did not have product specifications; 1 was found by FDA to have inadequate testing; 1 was found to have a lack of sufficient controls throughout the supply chain to guard against microbiological contamination; and 2 had confirmed melamine contamination or lack of melamine testing on protein powders. Additional concerns included the use of subcontractors for certain operations, lack of stability data to support expiration dates, material discrepancies between claims and actual practice, and failure to change UPC (Universal Product Code) numbers when active ingredient formulas change. Conclusions: We observed considerable variation in the quality of DS, and in the level of compliance, which raises concerns for patient safety. One company met all quality standards. The combined use of the measures described above allowed for informed product selection. The variable quality practices identified here emphasize the need for careful formulary oversight. The USP (United States Pharmacopeial Convention), ConsumerLab.com, and the NSF International’s certification programs are current resources available to help identify quality DS.

A Symbol-Based Algorithm for Decoding Bar Codes

We investigate the problem of decoding a bar code from a signal measured with a hand-held laser-based scanner. Rather than formulating the inverse problem as one of binary image reconstruction, we instead incorporate the symbology of the bar code into the reconstruction algorithm directly, and search for a sparse representation of the Universal Product Code bar code with respect to this known dictionary. Our approach significantly reduces the degrees of freedom in the problem, allowing for accurate reconstruction that is robust to noise and unknown parameters in the scanning device. We propose a greedy reconstruction algorithm and provide robust reconstruction guarantees. Numerical examples illustrate the insensitivity of our symbology-based reconstruction to both imprecise model parameters and noise on the scanned measurements.

Lists, Spatial Practice and Assistive Technologies for the Blind

Lists, Spatial Practice and Assistive Technologies for the Blind

A Pilot Study of Bar Codes in a Canadian Hospital

In 2004, the US Food and Drug Administration issued a new rule requiring most prescription and some over-the-counter pharmaceutical products to carry bar codes down to the level of individual doses, with the intent of reducing the number of medication errors. Despite these regulatory changes in the United States, Health Canada has not yet adopted any mandatory bar-coding of drugs. To evaluate the feasibility of using commercial bar codes for receipt and preparation of drug products and to evaluate the readability of the bar codes printed on various levels of drug packaging. This cross-sectional observational pilot study was conducted in the Pharmacy Department of a Canadian mother-child university hospital centre in July 2010. For the purposes of the study, research drugs and cytotoxic drugs in various storage areas, as well as locally compounded medications with bar codes generated in house, were excluded. For all other drug products, the presence or absence of bar codes was documented for each level of packaging, along with the trade and generic names, content (i.e., drug product), quantity of doses or level of packaging, therapeutic class (if applicable), type of bar code (1- or 2-dimensional symbology), alphanumeric value contained in the bar code, standard of reference used to generate the alphanumeric value (Universal Product Code [UPC], Global Trade Item Number [GTIN], or unknown), and readability of the bar codes by 2 scanners. Only 33 (1.9%) of the 1734 products evaluated had no bar codes on any level of packaging. Of the 2875 levels of packaging evaluated, 2021 (70.3%) had at least one bar code. Of the 2384 bar codes evaluated, 2353 (98.7%) were linear (1-dimensional) and 31 (1.3%) were 2-dimensional. Well over three-quarters (2112 or 88.6%) of the evaluated bar codes were readable by at least 1 of the 2 scanners used in the study. On the basis of these results, bar-coding could be used for receipt of 80.9% of the drug products at this Canadian hospital and for the preparation and dispensing of 70.1% of the products.

Comparison of Serum Cotinine Concentration within and across Smokers of Menthol and Nonmenthol Cigarette Brands among Non-Hispanic Black and Non-Hispanic White U.S. Adult Smokers, 2001–2006

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is examining options for regulating menthol content in cigarettes. There are many pharmacologic properties of menthol that may facilitate exposure to tobacco smoke, and it has been suggested that the preference for menthol cigarettes in black smokers accounts for their higher cotinine levels. To assess cigarettes smoked per day-adjusted cotinine levels in relation to smoking a menthol or nonmenthol cigarette brand among non-Hispanic black and white U.S. adult smokers under natural smoking conditions. Serum cotinine concentrations were measured in 1,943 smokers participating in the 2001 to 2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES). The effect of smoking a menthol brand on cigarettes smoked per day-adjusted serum cotinine levels in these two populations was modeled by adjusting for sex, age, number of smokers living in the home, body weight, time since last smoked, and FTC (Federal Trade Commission)-measured nicotine levels. The 8- or 12-digit Universal Product Code (UPC) on the cigarette label was used to determine the cigarette brand and whether it was menthol. Smoking a menthol cigarette brand versus smoking a nonmenthol cigarette brand was not associated (P ≥ 0.05) with mean serum cotinine concentration in either black or white smokers. The higher levels of cotinine observed in black smokers compared with white smokers are not explained by their higher preference for menthol cigarette brands. Further studies like ours are needed to improve our ability to understand health consequences of future changes in tobacco product design.