United States Pharmacopeia Apparatus Research Articles

Development of 3D-printed dual-release fixed-dose combination through double-melt extrusion

This study aimed to develop a 3D-printed fixed-dose combination tablet featuring differential release of two drugs using double-melt extrusion (DME). The hot-melt extrusion (HME) process was divided into two steps to manufacture a single filament containing the two drugs. In Step I, a sustained-release matrix of acetaminophen (AAP) was obtained through HME at 190 °C using Eudragit® S100, a pH-dependent polymer with a high glass transition temperature. In Step II, a filament containing both sustained-release AAP from Step I and solubilized ibuprofen (IBF) was fabricated via HME at 110 °C using a mixture of hydroxy propyl cellulose (HPC-LF) and Eudragit® EPO, whose glass transition temperatures make them suitable for use in a 3D printer. A filament manufactured using DME was used to produce a cylindrical 3D-printed fixed-dose combination tablet with a diameter and height of 9 mm. To evaluate the release characteristics of the manufactured filament and 3D-printed tablet, dissolution tests were conducted for 10 h under simulated gastrointestinal tract conditions using the pH jump method with the United States Pharmacopeia apparatus II paddle method at 37 ± 0.5 °C and 50 rpm. Dissolution tests confirmed that both the sustained-release and solubilized forms of AAP and IBF within the filament and 3D-printed tablet exhibited distinct drug-release behaviors. The physicochemical properties of the filament and 3D-printed tablet were confirmed by thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, powder X-ray diffraction, and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. HME transforms crystalline drugs into amorphous forms, demonstrating their physicochemical stability. Scanning electron microscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy indicated the presence of sustained AAP granules within the filament, confirming that the drugs were independently separated within the filament and 3D-printed tablets. Finally, sustained-release AAP and solubilized IBF were independently incorporated into the filaments using DME technology. Therefore, a dual-release 3D-printed fixed-dose combination was prepared using the proposed filament.

An Analytical Target Profile for the Development of an In Vitro Release Test Method and Apparatus Selection in the Case of Semisolid Topical Formulations.

This study focuses on how to define an Analytical Target Profile (ATP) which is intended for use in practice and on facilitating the selection of in vitro release test (IVRT) technology for diclofenac sodium topical hydrogel and cream. The implementation involves incorporating the new draft guidelines of the International Council for Harmonisation (ICH Q14) and USP (United States Pharmacopeia) Chapter 1220. Four IVRT apparatuses were compared (USP Apparatus II with immersion cell, USP Apparatus IV with semisolid adapter, static vertical diffusion cell, and a new, in-house-developed flow-through diffusion cell) with the help of the ATP. Performance characteristics such as accuracy, precision, cumulative amount released at the end of the IVRT experiment, and robustness were investigated. We found that the best apparatus for developing IVRT quality control (QC) tests in both cases was USP II with an immersion cell. All four different IVRT apparatuses were compared with each other and with the data found in the literature.

A Rational Design of a Biphasic DissolutionSetup-Modelling of Biorelevant Kinetics for a Ritonavir Hot-Melt Extruded Amorphous Solid Dispersion.

Biphasic dissolution systems achieved good predictability for the in vivo performance of several formulations of poorly water-soluble drugs by characterizing dissolution, precipitation, re-dissolution, and absorption. To achieve a high degree of predictive performance, acceptor media, aqueous phase composition, and the apparatus type have to be carefully selected. Hence, a combination of 1-decanol and an optimized buffer system are proposed as a new, one-vessel biphasic dissolution method (BiPHa+). The BiPHa+ was developed to combine the advantages of the well-described biorelevance of the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) apparatus II coupled with USP apparatus IV and a small-scale, one-vessel method. The BiPHa+ was designed for automated medium addition and pH control of the aqueous phase. In combination with the diode array UV-spectrophotometer, the system was able to determine the aqueous and the organic medium simultaneously, even if scattering or overlapping of spectra occurred. At controlled hydrodynamic conditions, the relative absorption area, the ratio between the organic and aqueous phase, and the selected drug concentrations were identified to be the discriminating factors. The performance of a hot-melt extruded ritonavir-containing amorphous solid dispersion (ritonavir-ASD) was compared in fasted-state dissolution media leading to different dissolution-partitioning profiles depending on the content of bile salts. An advanced kinetic model for ASD-based well described all phenomena from dispersing of the ASD to the partitioning of the dissolved ritonavir into the organic phase.

Assessing Drug Release from Manipulated Abuse Deterrent Formulations.

There is a need to develop in vitro dissolution methods that discriminate for particle size of the manipulated abuse deterrent formulation (ADF) and that can be used for in vivo predictive models since dissolution methods developed for intact formulation might not be suitable for manipulated ones. A vertical diffusion cell (VDC) and United States Pharmacopeia (USP) Apparatus 1, 2, and 4 were evaluated for measuring the dissolution of intact and manipulated metoprolol succinate tablets with abuse deterrent-like properties. These tablets were physically manipulated to produce fine (106-500μm) and coarse (500-1000μm) powder samples. The VDC method was not able to discriminate the effect of particle size on drug release with varied stirring rate (200 to 800rpm), molecular weight cut-off (MWCO, 3-5kDa to 12-14kDa) of the diffusion membrane, or composition and ionic strength (0.45% and 0.9%) of receiver medium. Standard and modified USP Apparatus 1 and 2 methods were assessed; however, large variations (RSD > 20%) were observed with USP Apparatus 1 for manipulated product dissolution and floating powder samples caused failure of auto-sampling when using standard USP Apparatus 2. For the USP Apparatus 4 dissolution method, packing configuration (1, 3, 8 layers and blend), ionic strength of dissolution medium (0.017, 0.077, and 0.154M additional NaCl), and flow rate (4, 8, 16mL/min) were studied to discriminate the effect of particle size on release. The USP Apparatus 4 dissolution method was optimized by using a packaging configuration of 8 layers with 8mL/min flow rate which exhibited low variability and complete drug release and it could be used for in vivo predictive models. The dissolution method variables can be optimized for a specific product for desirable reproducibility and discriminatory power when using USP Apparatus 4.

Prediction of the Oral Pharmacokinetics and Food Effects of Gabapentin Enacarbil Extended-Release Tablets Using Biorelevant Dissolution Tests.

The purpose of this research was to establish an in vitro dissolution testing method to predict the oral pharmacokinetic (PK) profiles and food effects of gabapentin enacarbil formulated as wax matrix extended-release (ER) tablets in humans. We adopted various biorelevant dissolution methods using the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) apparatus 2, 3 and 4 under simulated fasted and fed states. Simulated PK profiles using the convolution approach were compared to published in vivo human PK data. USP apparatus 2 and 4 underestimated the in vivo performance due to slow in vitro dissolution behaviors. In contrast, biorelevant dissolution using USP apparatus 3 coupled with the convolution approach successfully predicted the oral PK profile of gabapentin enacarbil after oral administration of a Regnite® tablet under fasted state. This approach might be useful for predicting the oral PK profiles of other drugs formulated as wax matrix-type ER tablets under fasted state.

Utilization of Gastrointestinal Simulator, an in Vivo Predictive Dissolution Methodology, Coupled with Computational Approach To Forecast Oral Absorption of Dipyridamole.

Weakly basic drugs exhibit a pH-dependent dissolution profile in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, which makes it difficult to predict their oral absorption profile. The aim of this study was to investigate the utility of the gastrointestinal simulator (GIS), a novel in vivo predictive dissolution (iPD) methodology, in predicting the in vivo behavior of the weakly basic drug dipyridamole when coupled with in silico analysis. The GIS is a multicompartmental dissolution apparatus, which represents physiological gastric emptying in the fasted state. Kinetic parameters for drug dissolution and precipitation were optimized by fitting a curve to the dissolved drug amount-time profiles in the United States Pharmacopeia apparatus II and GIS. Optimized parameters were incorporated into mathematical equations to describe the mass transport kinetics of dipyridamole in the GI tract. By using this in silico model, intraluminal drug concentration-time profile was simulated. The predicted profile of dipyridamole in the duodenal compartment adequately captured observed data. In addition, the plasma concentration-time profile was also predicted using pharmacokinetic parameters following intravenous administration. On the basis of the comparison with observed data, the in silico approach coupled with the GIS successfully predicted in vivo pharmacokinetic profiles. Although further investigations are still required to generalize, these results indicated that incorporating GIS data into mathematical equations improves the predictability of in vivo behavior of weakly basic drugs like dipyridamole.

(425) Dissolution studies in the presence of alcohol with an abuse-deterrent, extended-release morphine product candidate

Some extended-release (ER) opioid formulations may be prone to rapid drug release (dose dumping) when co-ingested with alcohol, potentially causing toxicity, overdose, and even death. Dissolution testing in the presence of various concentrations of alcohol to assess the potential for dose dumping was conducted with a novel morphine abuse-deterrent (AD), ER, injection-molded tablet (morphine ADER-IMT) product candidate. Morphine ADER-IMT applies proprietary Guardian™ technology (Egalet Corporation, Wayne, PA) that uses a novel plastic injection molding process for manufacturing the tablets. Dissolution of morphine ADER-IMT (15-mg, 60-mg, and 100-mg dosages) was evaluated (n=12) at 37ºC±0.5ºC in 900 mL 0.1 N HCl (pH 1.2; reflecting gastric pH) or buffer (pH 6.8; reflecting intestinal pH) media containing 0, 5, 10, 20, and 40% ethanol, using a standard United States Pharmacopeia apparatus. Morphine release was measured by high-performance liquid chromatography with an ultraviolet detector (285 nm) at 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, and 120 minutes. All dissolution profiles for morphine ADER-IMT 15 mg and 60 mg complied with f2 profile comparison test criteria, indicating comparable dissolution profiles among aqueous (0% ethanol) and ethanol-containing media. The 100-mg dosage demonstrated a significantly slower dissolution in 40% ethanol and therefore did not pass the f2 test. Ethanol in concentrations of 5%–20% had no clear effect on dissolution rates in either pH 1.2 or pH 6.8. However, a trend showing a decrease in dissolution rates for all dosages was observed with increasing ethanol concentrations, and a significant decrease in dissolution rate was observed with 40% ethanol. No evidence of alcohol dose dumping was observed with morphine ADER-IMT, and slower dissolution rates occurred at higher alcohol concentrations. Funded by Egalet Corporation.

The Evaluation of In Vitro Drug Dissolution of Commercially Available Oral Dosage Forms for Itraconazole in Gastrointestinal Simulator With Biorelevant Media

The purpose of this study was to assess the feasibility of a multicompartmental in vitro dissolution apparatus, gastrointestinal simulator (GIS), in assessing the drug dissolution of 2 commercially available oral dosage forms for itraconazole (ICZ). The GIS consists of 3 chambers, mimicking the upper gastrointestinal tract. In vitro dissolution of ICZ capsule or oral solution was evaluated in United States Pharmacopeia apparatus II and GIS. To investigate the suitability of fasted state simulated intestinal fluid (FaSSIF) to predict better in vivo, FaSSIF as well as phosphate buffer were used as dissolution media. Area under the dissolved drug amount-time curve (AUDC) was calculated for each dosage form in each apparatus, and the ratios of AUDCoral solution to AUDCcapsule were compared with human pharmacokinetic data. Based on this comparison, GIS with FaSSIF can adequately distinguish the pharmacokinetic profiles of 2 oral dosage forms for ICZ. Additionally, Caco-2 cell transepithelial transport study in combination with GIS revealed that improved drug dissolution by formulations resulted in enhanced permeation of ICZ through cell monolayer, suggesting the observed ICZ concentration in the GIS will directly reflect systemic exposure. These results indicate GIS would be a powerful tool to assess the formulations of ICZ as well as other Biopharmaceutics Classification System class II drug formulations.

In Vitro Dissolution of Fluconazole and Dipyridamole in Gastrointestinal Simulator (GIS), Predicting in Vivo Dissolution and Drug-Drug Interaction Caused by Acid-Reducing Agents.

Weakly basic drugs typically exhibit pH-dependent solubility in the physiological pH range, displaying supersaturation or precipitation along the gastrointestinal tract. Additionally, their oral bioavailabilities may be affected by coadministration of acid-reducing agents that elevate gastric pH. The purpose of this study was to assess the feasibility of a multicompartmental in vitro dissolution apparatus, Gastrointestinal Simulator (GIS), in predicting in vivo dissolution of certain oral medications. In vitro dissolution studies of fluconazole, a BCS class I, and dipyridamole, a BCS class II weak bases (class IIb), were performed in the GIS as well as United States Pharmacopeia (USP) apparatus II and compared with the results of clinical drug-drug interaction (DDI) studies. In both USP apparatus II and GIS, fluconazole completely dissolved within 60 min regardless of pH, reflecting no DDI between fluconazole and acid-reducing agents in a clinical study. On the other hand, seven-fold and 15-fold higher concentrations of dipyridamole than saturation solubility were observed in the intestinal compartments in GIS with gastric pH 2.0. Precipitation of dipyridamole was also observed in the GIS, and the percentage of dipyridamole in solution was 45.2 ± 7.0%. In GIS with gastric pH 6.0, mimicking the coadministration of acid-reducing agents, the concentration of dipyridamole was equal to its saturation solubility, and the percentage of drug in solution was 9.3 ± 2.7%. These results are consistent with the clinical DDI study of dipyridamole with famotidine, which significantly reduced the Cmax and area under the curve. An In situ mouse infusion study combined with GIS revealed that high concentration of dipyridamole in the GIS enhanced oral drug absorption, which confirmed the supersaturation of dipyridamole. In conclusion, GIS was shown to be a useful apparatus to predict in vivo dissolution for BCS class IIb drugs.

Developing dissolution testing methodologies for extended-release oral dosage forms with supersaturating properties. Case example: Solid dispersion matrix of indomethacin

The objective of this study was to develop an in vitro dissolution test method with discrimination ability for an extended-release solid dispersion matrix of a lipophilic drug using the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) Apparatus 4, flow-through cell apparatus. In the open-loop configuration, the sink condition was maintained by manipulating the flow rate of the dissolution medium. To evaluate the testing conditions, the drug release mechanism from an extended-release solid dispersion matrix containing hydrophobic and hydrophilic polymers was investigated. As the hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) maintained concentrations of indomethacin higher than the solubility in a dissolution medium, the release of HPMC into the dissolution medium was also quantified using size-exclusion chromatography. We concluded that the USP Apparatus 4 is suitable for application to an in vitro dissolution method for orally administered extended-release solid dispersion matrix formulations containing poorly water-soluble drugs.

Release of 5-Aminosalicylic Acid (5-ASA) from Mesalamine Formulations at Various pH Levels.

IntroductionOral formulations of 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) for treatment of ulcerative colitis have been developed to minimize absorption prior to the drug reaching the colon. In this study, we investigate the release of 5-ASA from available oral mesalamine formulations in physiologically relevant pH conditions.MethodsRelease of 5-ASA from 6 mesalamine formulations (APRISO®, Salix Pharmaceuticals, Inc., USA; ASACOL® MR, Procter & Gamble Pharmaceuticals UK Ltd.; ASACOL® HD, Procter & Gamble Pharmaceuticals, USA; MEZAVANT XL®, Shire US Inc.; PENTASA®, Ferring Pharmaceuticals, Ltd., UK; SALOFALK®, Dr. Falk Pharma UK Ltd.) was evaluated using United States Pharmacopeia apparatus I and II at pH values of 1.0 (2 h), 6.0 (1 h), and 6.8 (8 h). Dissolution profiles were determined for each formulation, respectively.ResultsOf the tested formulations, only the PENTASA formulation demonstrated release of 5-ASA at pH 1.0 (48%), with 56% cumulative release after exposure to pH 6.0 and 92% 5-ASA release after 6–8 h at pH 6.8. No other mesalamine formulation showed >1% drug release at pH 1.0. The APRISO formulation revealed 36% 5-ASA release at pH 6.0, with 100% release after 3 h at pH 6.8. The SALOFALK formulation revealed 11% 5-ASA release at pH 6.0, with 100% release after 1 h at pH 6.8. No 5-ASA was released by the ASACOL MR, ASACOL HD, and MEZAVANT XL formulations at pH 6.0. At pH 6.8, the ASACOL MR and ASACOL HD formulations exhibited complete release of 5-ASA after 4 and 2 h, respectively, and the MEZAVANT XL formulation demonstrated complete 5-ASA release over 6–7 h.Conclusion5-Aminosalicylic acid release profiles were variable among various commercially available formulations.FundingShire Development LLC.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s12325-015-0206-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Analyzing the impact of different excipients on drug release behavior in hot-melt extrusion formulations using FTIR spectroscopic imaging

The drug release performance of hot-melt extrudate formulations is mainly affected by its composition and interactions between excipients, drug and the dissolution media. For targeted formulation development, it is crucial to understand the role of these interactions on the drug release performance of extrudate formulations. Attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopic imaging was used with an in-situ flow-cell device to analyze the impact of different excipients on drug release from extrudates. The compositions differed in the type of polymer (copovidone and Soluplus®), the salt or acid form of ibuprofen and the addition of sodium carbonate. For comparison, conventional USP (United States Pharmacopeia) Apparatus 2 dissolution studies were performed. FTIR imaging revealed that differences in the drug release rate were mainly due to drug–polymer interactions. Ibuprofen acid showed interactions with the matrix polymer and exhibited a slower drug release compared to non-interacting ibuprofen salt. Addition of sodium carbonate to the ibuprofen acid containing formulations enhanced the drug release rate of these systems by interfering with the drug–polymer interactions. In addition, drug release rates also depended on the polymer type, showing faster drug release rates for extrudate formulations containing copovidone compared to Soluplus®. FTIR imaging revealed that the stronger the drug–polymer interaction in the formulations, the slower the drug release. The addition of sodium carbonate improved release as it reduces drug–polymer interactions and allows for the formation of the more water-soluble ibuprofen salt.

3D hydrodynamics and shear rates’ variability in the United States Pharmacopeia Paddle Dissolution Apparatus

The 3D hydrodynamics and shear rates distributions within the United States Pharmacopeia Apparatus 2 have been investigated in this paper. With the help of a CFD package, several geometric modifications to the device were evaluated in this study. Specially, we examine the influence of impeller clearance, blade diameter, shape of the vessel base and shape of the lower part of blade. Increasing the impeller clearance was observed to exacerbate the heterogeneity in shear and would likely result in greater variability in dissolution measurements. Use of moderate blade diameter and dished bottom were observed to reduce shear heterogeneity in the regions where tablets are most likely to visit during testing. The comparative analysis shows better reproducibility and accelerated dissolution rates with the modified vessel shape, the dished bottom can enhance mixing near the vessel base when compared with the flat bottom. Increasing length of the lower edge of the paddle was observed to generate high radial pumping and to enlarge the dead zone located at the center of the vessel base.

Development of controlled release inhalable polymeric microspheres for treatment of pulmonary hypertension

Pulmonary hypertension (PAH) is a condition of the lungs characterised by an elevated arterial pressure and increased vascular resistance. Existing medications have to be administered frequently, resulting in non compliance by patients. Little work has been reported to date where microspheres have been developed to control the release of drug for treatment of pulmonary hypertension. To transcend this drawback, controlled release microspheres were formulated to minimise the number of doses required for treatment of PAH. Nifedipine and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) were used as the model drug and release modifier respectively. Microspheres were developed by varying the PVA concentration using the spray drying technique. The formulated microspheres were characterised in terms of particle size, morphology, crystallinity, interaction between PVA and nifedipine via Fourier transformed infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), in vitro release profile by employing the United States Pharmacopeia Apparatus type II and in vitro aerosolisation profile by using multi-stage liquid impinger (MSLI). The toxicity of PVA on lung epithelial cells was tested using human alveolar basal epithelium A549 cell line. From the data, it was observed that the microspheres were within the inhalable range (1-10 μm) with spherical morphology. The X-ray diffraction demonstrated that the microspheres were amorphous. There was no interaction between PVA and nifedipine during the formation of microspheres as seen by FTIR. The in vitro release profile showed a burst release followed by controlled release. A more prolonged release can be achieved by increasing the PVA:nifedipine ratio. In vitro aerosolisation showed that the Fine Particle Fractionemitted of the microspheres is greater than 20%, which is similar to that of marketed inhalation formulations. PVA was found to have insignificant effect on cell viability after 48 h of exposure to A549 cell line. In conclusion, microspheres of nifedipine and PVA, prepared by spray drying were found to exhibit suitable properties to achieve controlled release by the inhalation route.

Physicochemical and dissolution profile characterization of pellets containing different binders obtained by the extrusion-spheronization process

With the purpose of evaluating the behavior of different polymers employed as binders in small-diameter pellets for oral administration, we prepared formulations containing paracetamol and one of the following polymers: PVP, PEG 1500, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose and methylcellulose, and we evaluated their different binding properties. The pellets were obtained by the extrusion/spheronization process and were subsequently subjected to fluid bed drying. In order to assess drug delivery, the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) apparatus 3 (Bio-Dis) was employed, in conjunction with the method described by the same pharmacopeia for the dissolution of paracetamol tablets (apparatus 1). The pellets were also evaluated for granulometry, friability, true density and drug content. The results indicate that the different binders used are capable of affecting production in different ways, and some of the physicochemical characteristics of the pellets, as well as the dissolution test, revealed that the formulations acted like immediate-release products. The pellets obtained presented favorable release characteristics for orally disintegrating tablets. USP apparatus 3 seems to be more adequate for discriminating among formulations than the basket method.

Evaluation of pantoprazole formulations in different dissolution apparatus using biorelevant medium

The study was developed to compare the in vitro dissolution profiles of pantoprazole (CAS 102625-70-7) formulations in both The United States Pharmacopeia (USP) apparatus 2 and 3 by applying biorelevant medium. Moreover, an in vitro-in vivo relationship was proposed considering in vivo data from a previously published study. In vitro dissolution profiles were evaluated in biorelevant medium in USP apparatus 2 and 3 and the dissolution curves were either compared by the similarity factor (f2) or a model-independent approach. The fraction of drug dissolved in vitro in apparatus 2 was compared with the fraction of drug absorbed in vivo, which was obtained from a retrospective in vivo study. An in vitro-in vivo relationship analysis was then applied to elucidate the overall absorption characteristics of formulations. The dissolution profiles of formulations demonstrated similar disposition in biorelevant medium in both USP apparatus 2 and 3. The dissolution profiles were described by f2 model in apparatus 2 and Weibull's function in apparatus 3. The vitro-in vivo relationship analysis showed that the formulations exhibited permeability rate-limiting absorption. Biorelevant medium in both USP apparatus 2 and 3 may be used as a tool to predict in vivo disposition of formulations of pantoprazole. Furthermore, it can be argued that biowaiver can be granted for enteric coated formulations of pantoprazole on the basis of in vitro dissolution profile.

In vitro quantitative 1H and 19F nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and imaging studies of fluvastatin™ in Lescol® XL tablets in a USP-IV dissolution cell

Swellable polymeric matrices are key systems in the controlled drug release area. Currently, the vast majority of research is still focused on polymer swelling dynamics. This study represents the first quantitative multi-nuclear ( 1 H and 19 F) fast magnetic resonance imaging study of the complete dissolution process of a commercial (Lescol® XL) tablet, whose formulation is based on the hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) polymer under in vitro conditions in a standard USP-IV (United States Pharmacopeia apparatus IV) flow-through cell that is incorporated into high field superconducting magnetic resonance spectrometer. Quantitative RARE 1 H magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and 19 F nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and imaging methods have been used to give information on: (i) dissolution media uptake and hydrodynamics; (ii) active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) mobilisation and dissolution; (iii) matrix swelling and dissolution and (iv) media activity within the swelling matrix. In order to better reflect the in vivo conditions, the bio-relevant media Simulated Gastric Fluid (SGF) and Fasted State Simulated Intestinal Fluid (FaSSIF) were used. A newly developed quantitative ultra-fast MRI technique was applied and the results clearly show the transport dynamics of media penetration and hydrodynamics along with the polymer swelling processes. The drug dissolution and mobility inside the gel matrix was characterised, in parallel to the 1 H measurements, by 19 F NMR spectroscopy and MRI, and the drug release profile in the bulk solution was recorded offline by UV spectrometer. We found that NMR spectroscopy and 1D-MRI can be uniquely used to monitor the drug dissolution/mobilisation process within the gel layer, and the results from 19 F NMR spectra indicate that in the gel layer, the physical mobility of the drug changes from “dissolved immobilised drug” to “dissolved mobilised drug”.

Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Oral Controlled-Release 5-Fluorocytosine

5-Fluorocytosine (5FC) is an oral antifungal that is currently used in combination with amphotericin B to treat Cryptococcus neoformans meningoencephalitis. The oral dosing of 5FC could be optimized by the use of a controlled-release (CR) formulation. The objective of the current study was to develop two prototype 5FC-CR formulations and evaluate the single-dose (1,500-mg) serum pharmacokinetic profiles of those formulations relative to the profile of the commercially available, immediate-release 5FC product (Ancobon) by the use of a phase 1, open-label, randomized, three-phase, crossover pharmacokinetic study design. Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose was utilized as the rate-controlling matrix to compound the 5FC-CR tablets. The two prototype 5FC-CR formulations demonstrated 80% release at 13.0 and 18.4 h, respectively, whereas the immediate-release product demonstrated 80% release at 0.28 h, as determined in vitro by the United States Pharmacopeia apparatus 2 dissolution method. Five subjects completed all three phases of the study without any adverse events. The mean maximum concentration, the area under the curve from time zero to 24 h, and the area under the curve from time zero to infinity were approximately 50% lower (P < 0.01) with the 5FC-CR formulations than with the immediate-release 5FC product. However, no statistically significant differences in the minimum concentrations at 24 h were noted between the formulations. The gastric absorption profile of 5FC-CR was well predicted by in vitro dissolution. Future exploration of a gastroretentive 5FC-CR formulation could overcome the marked lack of bioequivalence observed in the present study.

A Numerical Model of a Drug Particle Dissolving in a Dissolution Test Apparatus

AbstractThe dissolving compact, or tablet, is the most widely used method of drug delivery. Dissolution tests are used to ensure consistency during tablet manufacture, to assess the dissolution characteristics of a particular tablet design, to establish in vitro/in vivo correlations, and to predict how the drug will perform in the body. Dissolution tests also form a part of the drug approval process. The United States Pharmacopeia (USP) Type 2 Paddle Dissolution Apparatus,from here on referred to as the USP apparatus, is a standard dissolution test device, used by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the pharmaceutical industry. Although the USP apparatus is much used, detailed theoretical descriptions of its characteristics are still not well developed. This work considers one possible end state of a dissolving tablet, i.e. fragmentation into small particles with dissolution continuing from the disintegrated solid masses. A framework for calculating the motion of and mass transfer from a drug particle moving through the USP apparatus is outlined. Calculations demonstrate that small particles move with the USP apparatus flow and that, for small particles below a critical diameter, natural convection and radial diffusion dominate, i.e. forced convection effects can be neglected for small particles. (© 2009 Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH &amp; Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

In situ fiber optic method for long-term in vitro release testing of microspheres

The objective of this study was to develop an in vitro release method for relatively unstable drugs in long-term modified release (MR) formulations, such as microspheres. Drug stability in the release medium can complicate in vitro release testing of such delivery systems. To overcome this problem, a method has been developed where the model drug, cefazolin, and its degradation products are monitored simultaneously, using UV fiber optic probes, to account for cumulative drug release from poly(lactic- co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) microspheres. United States Pharmacopeia (USP) Apparatus 2 and 4 were used to evaluate cefazolin release throughout the 30-day study period. Cefazolin exhibits an isosbestic point (wavelength where the drug and the degradation products have the same absorbance). Cumulative drug release was compared at the isosbestic (288 nm) point and at the UV max (270 nm). Monitoring at the isosbestic point allowed determination of total drug release with approximately 100% release by day 25. Whereas, at the UV max approximately 61% release was detected by day 25 as a result of drug degradation. Problems were encountered using USP Apparatus 2 with the in situ UV fiber optic probes as a result of microsphere accumulation at and interference with the probe detection window.