Convention On Climate Change Research Articles

Last Call for 1.5 Degrees:

The twenty-seventh Conference of the Parties (COP27) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Sharm el-Sheikh made history by for the first time ever discussing and ultimately even agreeing to establish a fund to address loss and damage caused by climate change. However, the conference did little to limit the occurrence of loss and damage in the first place by containing the extent of climate change. This article discusses the conference's outcomes in the areas of mitigation and adaptation, loss and damage, the Global Stocktake, cooperation under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, climate finance, and gender-responsiveness. While modest progress can be observed, it is too slow to actually achieve the objectives of the Paris Agreement. This pace is leading many, not least the most vulnerable countries, to search for parallel arenas of cooperation.

Green new deals could be the answer to COP26’s deep decarbonisation needs

The 2021 Conference of Parties (COP) 26 was expected as a landmark meeting, noting the increased impacts of climate change and the subsequent warning reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and that of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). With global temperatures gradually increasing, COP26 underlined the need for deeper commitments, fueling a race to decarbonization. However, Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), where countries make their climate pledges, do not reflect the need for just transition models with dimensions of inclusivity and economic equity in mind. A measure that can emerge at national levels post-COP26 is ‘Green New Deals,’ which can respond to contextual needs while accelerating sustainability transitions with social protection frameworks if carefully designed. With proper structuring, while taking into account immediate, short- and medium-term goals, Green New Deals can be designed as a critical tool to ensure the attainment of sustainability agendas while pursuing social and economic justice.

Too Little, Too Slow? Climate Adaptation at the United Nations Climate Change Negotiations Since the Adoption of the Paris Agreement

Adaptation to climate change has become a top priority of negotiations under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement. However, most of the literature on global climate governance focuses on mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. This article therefore proposes a framework for tracking negotiation outcomes on adaptation based on the four dimensions of the Adaptation Gap Report of the United Nations Environment Programme (planning, finance, implementation, and effectiveness) and on key governance functions outlined in the climate policy literature. By comparing the adaptation outcomes of the three most recent Conferences of the Parties (COP25 – COP27) with the baseline of adaptation provisions in the Paris Agreement and its rulebook, the extent and type of decisions on adaptation are assessed and the evolution of relevant agenda items is analysed. Decisions adopted since 2019 have concentrated on support and transparency while the Paris Agreement made greater use of signalling and rule-setting. The extent to which adaptation gaps identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change can be reduced through decisions at UN climate change negotiations is influenced by the potential and limits of governing a context-specific subject matter at the global level. Reflecting about how adaptation can be facilitated through multiple governance functions will be vital for the development of an effective framework for the global goal on adaptation.

Development or Environmental Jeopardy: The Carbon Footprint of Hotels in Juba South Sudan

Climate change and global warming have been identified as major threats to the development of South Sudan due to greenhouse gases (GHGs) emission responsible for the rising temperatures and erosion of existing ecosystem services that support local livelihoods. Mitigating GHGs emissions has become an urgent global policy trajectory with countries acceding to related Treaties and setting national targets. Despite having submitted its initial communications to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), outlining specific sectors for GHGs reduction, the rapidly growing hotel industry has not been identified among the sectors and no GHGs emission reporting has been undertaken. Therefore, this study aimed to assess, quantify and report on the GHGs emission potential of the hotel industry in Juba-South Sudan, examine existing GHGs emission reporting mechanisms and propose a reporting framework. Using a standard quantitative methodology, the carbon footprint of twenty-seven hotels was assessed. The results showed that the hotel industry is one of the leading emitters of GHGs emission amounting to 14,624.9-ton CO2eq/year. The study also found no existing GHGs reporting systems in South Sudan and proposed a reporting framework and identified potential emissions reduction strategies for the hotel industry to deal with climate change and carbon emission issues of the hospitality industry. It recommends that further research be initiated to 1) assess the applicability of the identified strategies in the context of South Sudan and 2) to quantify GHGs emissions from cooling appliance within the hospitality industry as well as emissions from other growing sectors like the transportation.

Technoeconomic and environmental assessment of HyForce, a hydrogen-fuelled harbour tug

The call for concerted global action against the climate change impact is well heard. 191 countries would communicate their progressive plans through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as signatories to the Paris Agreement. Harbour crafts as part of the larger maritime ecosystem, can significantly contribute to reduced emissions. In this paper, HyForce, the next generation 2 MW hydrogen powered virtual tugboat was designed for a feasibility assessment for her techno-economic and environmental footprint to replace existing diesel-powered tugboats. The study compares the use of hydrogen fuel cells and an internal combustion engine to perform the same dynamic load profile for a typical tugboat mission. The results from the study show that a signpost for commercial competitiveness of HyForce is influenced primarily by the projected liquid hydrogen cost of 5.10 USD per kg in 2040 with a 2,000 USD/kW capital cost for the fuel cells.Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions from a “well-to-wake” analysis for fossil-based hydrogen and renewable hydrogen supply chains were conducted, and the results show 26.9% and 75.6% reduction, respectively, compared to similar tug running on diesel fuel.

Assessment of energy efficiency for traditional non-engineered and engineered residential buildings – A case of North-Eastern India

Huge energy consumption in the building sector and consequent Green House Gas (GHG) emission is a major sustainability concern for India. According to Government of India (GOI) energy statistics, residential and commercial structures consumed 32% of the India’s total electricity produced in 2016. The energy demand of India’s buildings is predicted to face a hike of 800% in 2047 as compared to 2012. In 2015, India as a party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held in Paris, voluntarily declared a goal to reduce the intensity of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) emissions by 20–25%, over 2005 levels, by 2020.Most of the initiatives taken in the developed countries as well as in India focus on engineered buildings. There is significant gap in the assessment of non-engineered buildings with scant attention for small sized traditional residential buildings. As majority of the buildings (especially Assam-type housing) in the towns and rural areas in the Northeast are primarily constructed with traditional materials and construction techniques, they contribute significantly in the cumulative energy consumption in the country.The article focuses on non-engineered traditional and engineered, single storey houses of North-Eastern India. These traditional houses, made of Ikra (a locally available reed and effective against earthquake events), wood and mud, are unfortunately becoming extinct with advent of newer technologies. Energy performances of these buildings using traditional and conventional construction materials have been assessed through Whole Building Energy Simulation and the results are compared with iterations in buildings using parametric data prescribed in Eco Niwas Samhita - the Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC), in India. The study suggests the scope analysed best case building parameters in real life construction, to ensure better efficiency in energy performance and, thereby making the houses less dependent on mechanical /active systems for achieving thermal comfort.

Estimating 2010–2015 anthropogenic and natural methane emissions in Canada using ECCC surface and GOSAT satellite observations

Abstract. Methane emissions in Canada have both anthropogenic and natural sources. Anthropogenic emissions are estimated to be 4.1 Tg a−1 from 2010–2015 in the National Inventory Report submitted to the United Nation's Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Natural emissions, which are mostly due to boreal wetlands, are the largest methane source in Canada and highly uncertain, on the order of ∼ 20 Tg a−1 in biosphere process models. Aircraft studies over the last several years have provided “snapshot” emissions that conflict with inventory estimates. Here we use surface data from the Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) in situ network and space-borne data from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite (GOSAT) to determine 2010–2015 anthropogenic and natural methane emissions in Canada in a Bayesian inverse modelling framework. We use GEOS-Chem to simulate anthropogenic emissions comparable to the National Inventory and wetlands emissions using an ensemble of WetCHARTS v1.0 scenarios in addition to other minor natural sources. We conduct a comparative analysis of the monthly natural emissions and yearly anthropogenic emissions optimized by surface and satellite data independently. Mean 2010–2015 posterior emissions using ECCC surface data are 6.0 ± 0.4 Tg a−1 for total anthropogenic and 11.6 ± 1.2 Tg a−1 for total natural emissions. These results agree with our posterior emissions of 6.5 ± 0.7 Tg a−1 for total anthropogenic and 11.7 ± 1.2 Tg a−1 for total natural emissions using GOSAT data. The seasonal pattern of posterior natural emissions using either dataset shows slower to start emissions in the spring and a less intense peak in the summer compared to the mean of WetCHARTS scenarios. We combine ECCC and GOSAT data to characterize limitations towards sectoral and provincial-level inversions. We estimate energy + agriculture emissions to be 5.1 ± 1.0 Tg a−1, which is 59 % higher than the national inventory. We attribute 39 % higher anthropogenic emissions to Western Canada than the prior. Natural emissions are lower across Canada. Inversion results are verified against independent aircraft data and surface data, which show better agreement with posterior emissions. This study shows a readjustment of the Canadian methane budget is necessary to better match atmospheric observations with lower natural emissions partially offset by higher anthropogenic emissions.

Comparison of forward and backward Lagrangian transport modelling to determine methane emissions from anaerobic digestion facilities

In biogas plants, where biological treatment of organic matter by anaerobic digestion (AD) is performed, as well as in plants for upgrading of biogas to biomethane, there might be emissions to air from different parts of the plants. Precise and comparable methods to quantify methane (CH 4 ) emissions from biogas plants are necessary to evaluate mitigation strategies and to generate more accurate emissions factors for national emission inventories in the context of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) reporting. The main objective of this study was to provide recommendations for the measurement and modelling procedures of inverse dispersion modelling (IDM) to assure comparability of CH 4 emissions among diverse approaches and AD facilities. Two Lagrangian stochastic dispersion models were used operating in forward (LASAT) and backward (WindTrax) mode based on open-path concentration and meteorological data acquired by three international measurement teams at two biogas plants. The sensitivity analysis of the modelling systems regarding input parameters and setups (e.g. source configuration, terrain, sampling distance from the site, different combinations of wind data) showed that in WindTrax (backward mode) the measurement speed of meteorological parameters (via three-dimensional ultrasonic anemometer) had the largest influence on the calculated emission estimates, while in LASAT (forward mode) the assumption of the source configuration greatly affected the flux estimates. The used concentration data (e.g. location of observations, measurement mode of background concentration) was critically important to the success of IDM. The CH 4 emission rates from the AD facility in flat terrain (plant 1) calculated with both Lagrangian models by IDM showed good agreement with the DIAL (Differential Absorption Light Detection And Ranging) method and methane release tests (deviation in the range of 10–20%) when using best fit configurations (e.g. volume source in LASAT, area source in WindTrax, optimal measurement fetch). In moderately complex terrain (plant 2), the retrieval rates of controlled CH 4 releases, and thus the certainty of flux estimates of both dispersion models tended to decrease without the use of a terrain model. • First comparison of emission results inferred with LASAT and WindTrax. • Concentration and meteorological data obtained by three independent measurement teams. • Evaluation of sensitivity of the modelling system to input parameters and setups. • Recommendations for measurement and modelling procedure. • Uncertainty of ±10–20% for both models in flat terrains using best fit configurations.

A fair and progressive carbon price for a sustainable economy

The principle of “common but differentiated responsibility”, as a key concept of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), acknowledges the conditions for a generally acceptable and differentiated pricing mechanism on carbon emissions. With reference to this principle, carbon price determination has become a necessary instrument for sustainable policies. Considering the development gaps and the historical responsibility of the OECD's countries, a single carbon price would raise a major issue of equity between “developed” and “developing” countries. Although from a climate perspective each molecule of CO2 produces the same level of damage despite the nature or the location of the activity generating the emissions, all CO2 emissions are not on an equal footing. Indeed, some are necessary to improve the lives of people in “developing” countries when others can be considered not indispensable, especially beyond a certain level of development. In this policy paper, we explain how the price of carbon should be fixed according to a reference price depending on the Human Development Index (HDI) and CO2 emissions per capita.The HDI criterion enables to integrate progressivity into taxation while distinguishing what is essential from what is not. By taking a reference price based on the HDI, countries with low HDIs should pay a lower carbon price. However, with same HDI levels, countries with higher CO2 emissions should pay a penalty on the reference price.Our policy paper analyses the benefits of a differentiated and progressive carbon pricing mechanism to facilitate intergovernmental cooperation for a more sustainable economy.

From Kyoto to Glasgow: is Japan a climate leader?

The term ‘climate leadership’ became popular in the 1990s, in relation to international negotiations aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and other environmental mitigations. Since that time, international attention – borne out by scientific study and a rapidly changing planetary climate - has shifted from global warming, the ozone layer and greenhouse gas emissions, to energy production, scientific innovation, and, by the 2020s, a strong focus on decarbonisation and securing net zero carbon output by the middle of the century. One important strand of negotiation has been the annual Conferences of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which have witnessed different states playing lead roles at different times. By interrogating the main academic debates about climate leadership, this article examines Japan’s participation in the COP process along a structural-normative axis. In so doing, it charts the path from Japan’s apparent success at Kyoto in 1997 and its growing green reputation, to its subsequent ‘fall from green’ in later years and in the wake of COP26 in 2021.

Post-Paris policy relevance: lessons from the IPCC SR15 process

Policy relevance is the raison d’être for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), yet few studies have analysed what the concept entails, not least from the perspective of key target groups for the IPCC. We present a framework which enables analysis of how different actor strategies (heating up and cooling down) contribute to shape relevance-making in specific political situations when IPCC knowledge is interpreted and used. Drawing on empirical evidence from the reception and use of the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5°C (SR15) across three policy making levels, the paper demonstrates different examples of creating policy relevance. First, the paper analyses the origin of SR15 and the failed attempts to formally acknowledge SR15 in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) process. Second, it investigates how SR15 has been used to develop and legitimize the EU net-zero target and the European Green Deal. Third, the paper demonstrates how SR15 has been used both for legitimizing and challenging climate policy at the national level, using the example of Norway. In sum, the reception of SR15 demonstrates that while IPCC outputs have resulted in controversy at the international level, they have been highly relevant at regional and national levels. The analysis shows that policy relevance is context-dependent and indirect—created through processes involving many actors, institutions, and types of knowledge. Situating these findings within the larger shift in the international climate regime implied by the Paris Agreement, the paper concludes with a set of empirically grounded recommendations for how the IPCC may approach the goal of policy relevance post-Paris.

Cultivated ties and strategic communication: do international environmental secretariats tailor information to increase their bureaucratic reputation?

The past few years have witnessed a growing interest among scholars and policy-makers in the interplay of international bureaucracies with civil society organizations, other non-profit entities, and the private sector. This article extends the state of research by investigating whether and how secretariats try to strengthen their reputation within their respective policy regimes through information provision and alliance building. Based on reputation theory, the article argues that ties cultivated with stakeholders as well as appearance and presentation of information are decisive in this regard. Methodologically, the study implements a mixed-methods design that combines a quantitative survey with social network analysis and qualitative content analysis of interviews with stakeholders within the climate and biodiversity regime. We show that the secretariats of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) maintain relationships with a wide range of state and non-state actors to enhance their reputation. Moreover, different types of actors receive different types of information from the two secretariats studied. Our findings reveal that both secretariats use their limited resources for investing strategically into networks with different types of actors (in the broader transnational policy network), either via the tailored provision of information or through strategic networking with multipliers. They also indicate that reputation does not simply depend on characteristics of bureaucracies, but also on framework conditions and different communication strategies.

Benefit sharing and conflict transformation: Insights for and from REDD+ forest governance in sub-Saharan Africa

In light of growing pressure on forests benefit sharing is increasingly gaining attention as a governance approach to facilitating more equitable and sustainable interactions and outcomes. While benefit sharing is one of the key components of REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation and the enhancement of forest carbon stocks) programs and policies under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the approach is also actively debated within other resource governance contexts such as biodiversity and water. The debates however remain largely independent from one another. We particularly examine how benefit sharing could contribute to transformation of conflicts. Using discourse analysis and drawing from the broader scholarship of benefit sharing and property rights theory, we propose distinguishing appropriation-oriented and provision-oriented types of benefit sharing within REDD+. For sub-Saharan Africa, we see the need for such structured institutional analysis, which may point to particular emerging and persistent resource use inequalities as a new source of conflict. We investigate four case studies of REDD+ progress in Ghana, Tanzania, Cameroon, and Uganda that reveal some systemic challenges in achieving equitable and sustainable benefit sharing. The paper demonstrates that distinguishing and structuring appropriation and provision types of benefit sharing is indeed helpful as they are likely to be indicative of different outcomes. Our case studies also reveal challenges of policy-procedural nature such as weak land tenure arrangements and absence of carbon rights framework, but also fundamental challenges of agency nature such as conflicting interests vested in agriculture and tendency of concentration of benefits in the hands of few powerful actors.

Participatory injustice in Mexico\u2019s Readiness process to Reduce Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD\u2009+)

Since 2007 many developing countries have laid groundwork for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation and sustainable management and conservation of forests (REDD +) under the auspices of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). REDD + is aimed at incentivizing forest conservation and management in developing countries through policy programmers and local projects, which should in theory enhance the participation of very diverse actors in forest policy and governance. Here we explore the early years of REDD + in Mexico focusing on the alleged “participatory” nature of the REDD + initiative. Based on interviews and field observations with those involved in drafting the REDD + national strategy and in the implementation of small-scale pilot project activities, we investigate the meaning of participation for REDD + actors, their aspirations in this regard, and how procedural justice issues are being considered in early policy implementation. We demonstrate that the process set in motion to draft the strategy did not sufficiently involve sub-national governance levels, thus reducing the legitimacy of REDD + efforts, particularly in rural communities. We suggest that rural local actors should be further involved in REDD + decision-making forums, be provided with more information for a good understanding of REDD + implementation (e.g., pilot projects), and most importantly, be given a real chance to implement REDD + activities grounded on their own institutions and land-use practices.

Kew declaration on reforestation for biodiversity, carbon capture and livelihoods

The Kew Declaration is based on a synthesis and conclusions of discussions held at the ‘Reforestation for Biodiversity, Carbon Capture and Livelihoods’ conference (online, February 2021) and on evidence presented in the published scientific literature. The aim of the Kew Declaration is to protect biodiversity, mitigate carbon emissions and climate change, and improve livelihoods by promoting a framework and policies that ensure protection of intact forests and adoption of effective restoration strategies that further these three goals. The conference on ‘Reforestation for Biodiversity, Carbon Capture and Livelihoods’ was held online on 24–26 February 2021, hosted by Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and Botanic Gardens Conservation International, and attended by over 2400 participants, representing a wide range of reforestation practitioners, policymakers, funders, businesses, NGOs and researchers from 113 countries. During the conference, delegates reviewed and discussed examples of the successes and challenges of large-scale reforestation and considered future approaches that incorporate biodiversity conservation concerns. The declaration below is based on a synthesis and conclusions of these discussions and on evidence presented in the published scientific literature, in particular the review, ‘Ten golden rules for reforestation to optimize carbon sequestration, biodiversity recovery and livelihood benefits’ (Di Sacco et al., 2021), https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.15498. Policymakers, financiers and practitioners in countries that have made reforestation pledges relating to Nationally Determined Contributions under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Land Degradation Neutrality targets under the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and other forest landscape restoration, nature-based solutions and Voluntary Emission Reduction schemes, including the New York Declaration on Forests, the Bonn Challenge, the World Economic Forum's 1t.org initiative, the Great Green Wall for Africa and the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration: The Declaration Drafting Committee, Botanic Gardens Conservation International and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, would like to extend our thanks to the many people who contributed to drafting the declaration and also to Mimi Tanimoto, who collated the responses. In addition, we would like to gratefully acknowledge the sponsors of the Reforestation Conference, Sky Zero and Fondation Franklinia. Data S1. Supporting Information Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.

Forecasting the CO2 Emissions at the Global Level: A Multilayer Artificial Neural Network Modelling

Better accuracy in short-term forecasting is required for intermediate planning for the national target to reduce CO2 emissions. High stake climate change conventions need accurate predictions of the future emission growth path of the participating countries to make informed decisions. The current study forecasts the CO2 emissions of the 17 key emitting countries. Unlike previous studies where linear statistical modeling is used to forecast the emissions, we develop a multilayer artificial neural network model to forecast the emissions. This model is a dynamic nonlinear model that helps to obtain optimal weights for the predictors with a high level of prediction accuracy. The model uses the gross domestic product (GDP), urban population ratio, and trade openness, as predictors for CO2 emissions. We observe an average of 96% prediction accuracy among the 17 countries which is much higher than the accuracy of the previous models. Using the optimal weights and available input data the forecasting of CO2 emissions is undertaken. The results show that high emitting countries, such as China, India, Iran, Indonesia, and Saudi Arabia are expected to increase their emissions in the near future. Currently, low emitting countries, such as Brazil, South Africa, Turkey, and South Korea will also tread on a high emission growth path. On the other hand, the USA, Japan, UK, France, Italy, Australia, and Canada will continuously reduce their emissions. These findings will help the countries to engage in climate mitigation and adaptation negotiations.

Deliberative Efforts Toward a Green Economy: A Case Study of Canada

By deconstructing Canada’s current system of environmental management, improvements to current policies can be made in order to reach goals which not only meet but exceed environmental expectations provided by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Canada’s Changing Climate Report (CCCR) 2019 has shown the highest rates of warming ranging from 1.7 °C to 2.3 °C since their initial report in 1948. This report from 2019 indicates that Canada is experiencing global warming at twice the rate of the 0.8 °C global average (Bush and Lemmen). Canada’s nationwide audits have stated goals to cut emissions, but no detailed plans, timelines, funding or expected results have been provided. No level of government in Canada is prepared to apply these actions nor adapt to the impacts of climate change. With several targets and no initiative to reach them, it is clear that Canada’s system of environmental management needs improvement. Reconstruction of communicative practices and reformation of current policies can ensure sustainability across all sectors. Through communicative changes and policy reforms, effective changes to both the economy and ecology can be reached. Deliberative polling in a networked environment lays the foundation toward representing non-human actors (non-human nature and future generations), full transparency, and sustainable goals.

UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE (UNFCCC) AND ROLE OF UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Man is a creator and molder of his environment which vests him with physical sustenance and affords him an opportunity for overall growth and development. Development is a perpetual process enabling a man to realize his potentialities to achieve his targets by exploiting natureÂ’s resources. Sustainability is a pattern of socio structural economic transformation which optimizes the benefits without compromising or jeopardizing the interest and potentiality of future generations but ensuring the evolution of a common principle so that human beings can survive for a long time with the natural environment. People are one of nationÂ’s greatest resources for enforcement of environment laws and regulations are intimately related to the natural attributes as citizens are omnipresent, motivated and interested in environment quality. But at present time advanced use of science and technology or of manufacturing process has disturbed the ecological balance. Since 1972 many attempt has been made to reconcile this imbalance. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was an attempt to bring both these elements i.e. use of technology and maintenance of ecological fairness together and try to tackle the issues of sustainable development, environment degradation and climate change effectively. The UNFCCC was an idea which caused all the countries of the world to come together and look for a solution to this world problem. In this paper it has been attempted to understand the effectiveness of UNFCCC with respect to role of United States of America. The author has mentioned two particular conferences of parties which were proved to be two milestone steps for protecting our environment under international legal regime.

Atmospheric methane and nitrous oxide: challenges alongthe path to Net Zero.

The causes of methane's renewed rise since 2007, accelerated growth from 2014 and record rise in 2020, concurrent with an isotopic shift to values more depleted in 13C, remain poorly understood. This rise is the dominant departure from greenhouse gas scenarios that limit global heating to less than 2°C. Thus a comprehensive understanding of methane sources and sinks, their trends and inter-annual variations are becoming more urgent. Efforts to quantify both sources and sinks and understand latitudinal and seasonal variations will improve our understanding of the methane cycle and its anthropogenic component. Nationally declared emissions inventories under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and promised contributions to emissions reductions under the UNFCCC Paris Agreement need to be verified independently by top-down observation. Furthermore, indirect effects on natural emissions, such as changes in aquatic ecosystems, also need to be quantified. Nitrous oxide is even more poorly understood. Despite this, options for mitigating methane and nitrous oxide emissions are improving rapidly, both in cutting emissions from gas, oil and coal extraction and use, and also from agricultural and waste sources. Reductions in methane and nitrous oxide emission are arguably among the most attractive immediate options for climate action.This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Rising methane: is warming feeding warming? (part 1)'.

A Systematic Literature Review of Inclusive Climate Change Adaption

Inclusive approaches have been applied in many areas, including human resources, international development, urban planning, and innovation. This paper is a systematic literature review to describe the usage trends, scope, and nature of the inclusive approach in the climate change adaptation (CCA) context. We developed search algorithms, explicit selection criteria, and a coding questionnaire, which we used to review a total of 106 peer-reviewed articles, 145 grey literature documents, and 67 national communications to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC); 318 documents were reviewed in total. Quantitatively, the methodology reveals a slight increase in usage, with a focus on non-Annex 1 countries, gender issues, and capacity building. Qualitatively, we arranged the key insights into the following three categories: (1) inclusion in who or what adapts; (2) motivating inclusive processes; and (3) anticipated outcomes of inclusive CCA. We conclude, with the observation, that many issues also apply to Annex 1 countries. We also argue that the common language nature of the word ‘inclusive’ makes it applicable to other CCA-relevant contexts, including government subsidies, science policy, knowledge integration and mobilization, performance measurement, and the breadth of the moral circle that a society should adopt.